HOUSE    SANITATION 


f  j  j. 


HOUSE    SANITATION 


A  Manual  for  Housekeepers 


BY 
MARION    TALBOT 


SECOND   PRINTING 


WHITCOMB  &   BARROWS 
BOSTON,  1913 


\ 


COPYRIGHT  1912 
BY  MARION  TALBOT 


THOMAS  TODD  Co.,  PRINTERS 
14  BEACON  STREET,  BOSTON,  MASS. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.    THE  NEW  SANITATION I 

II.    THE  RESPONSIBILITY  OF  THE  HOUSEKEEPER 9 

III.  SITUATION  OF  THE  HOUSE  AND  CARE  OF  THE 

CELLAR  13 

IV.  PLUMBING    24 

V.     AIR  AND  VENTILATION  42 

VI.  HEATING 57 

VII.  LIGHT  AND  LIGHTING  68 

VIII.  FURNISHING  79 

IX.  THE  COUNTRY  HOUSE  87 

X.  HOUSEHOLD  CONTROL  OF  INFECTION 96 

XL  CONCLUSION 107 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  no 

INDEX  113 


258632 


PREFATORY  NOTE 

UNDER  the  wise  and  inspiring  guidance  of  Mrs.  Ellen 
H.  Richards,  a  group  of  young  college  women — Annie  E. 
Allen,  Alice  Stone  Blackwell,  Sarah  Louise  Day,  Alia  W. 
Foster,  Edith  Talbot  Jackson,  Alice  Peloubet  Norton, 
and  the  undersigned — formed,  in  1883,  a  Sanitary 
Science  Club,  one  of  the  first  Organized  activities  of 
the  Association  of  Collegiate  Alumnae.  After  careful 
study  of  sanitary  problems,  they  published  a  little  book, 
entitled  "Home  Sanitation,"  which,  in  the  twenty-five 
years  that  have  passed,  has  been  widely  used  and  has 
proved  even  more  helpful  than  the  authors  anticipated. 

During  these  years,  however,  very  important  and  far- 
reaching  changes  have  taken  place  in  sanitary  theory 
and  a  considerable  number  of  the  practical  sugges- 
tions in  "Home  Sanitation"  have  become  out-of-date. 
Mrs.  Richards  had  been  urging  a  revision  of  the  book 
for  some  time  prior  to  her  death  in  1911.  The  surviving 
editor  believed,  however,  that  it  would  be  more  truly  in 
accord  with  Mrs.  Richards's  scientific  and  progressive 
spirit  to  rewrite  the  book.  This  she  has  done,  drawing 
freely  from  the  older  text,  using  the  results  of  studies 
made  by  advanced  students  in  the  Department  of  House- 
hold Administration  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  and 
endeavoring  to  replace  out-worn  theories  and  useless 
practices  with  such  modern  views  and  practical  sugges- 
tions as  will  best  help  the  progressive  housekeeper  in  her 

vii 


Vlll  PREFATORY    NOTE 

efforts  to  maintain  her  household  in  health  and  physical 
efficiency  with  the  least  expenditure  of  money,  time,  and 
strength. 

MARION  TALBOT. 
Department  of  Household 

Administration 
The  University  of  Chicago 
July,  1912 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  NEW  SANITATION 

THE  conservation  of  national  resources  is  a  term 
which  is  gradually  coming  to  include  human  life 
as  well  as  timber  and  coal.  Needless  waste  of  national 
vitality  is  taking  its  place  among  the  wrongs  which  are 
of  national  concern.  Conservation  of  human  life  is  to  be 
accomplished  in  large  part  through  the  practice  of  sani- 
tary measures.  To  be  effective  in  the  best  sense,  this 
practice  must  be  carried  on  with  the  least  possible  ex- 
penditure of  time,  effort,  and  money.  If,  with  intelligence 
and  skill,  one  housekeeper  can  do  the  work  of  ten  health 
officers  or  one  dollar  accomplish  as  much  as  ten  dollars 
in  the  hands  of  a  sanitary  inspector,  the  larger  expendi- 
ture is  sheer  waste  and  the  net  result  in  conservation  is 
so  much  the  smaller. 

It  is,  therefore,  well  worth  while  for  those  interested 
in  the  promotion  of  public  and  private  health  occasion- 
ally to  survey  the  field  of  sanitary  practice  and  to  learn 
whether  the  methods  in  use  are  in  accord  with  the  advance 
of  science,  or  whether  modern  theory  calls  for  changes  in 
practice  in  the  interests  of  effective  and  economical  re- 
sults. This  is  particularly  true  of  housekeepers,  for,  on 
the  whole,  the  sanitation  of  the  home  is  in  their  keeping, 
and  as  the  famous  sanitarian,  Dr.  B.  W.  Richardson, 
said,  "If  in  the  centers  called  home  the  foundations  of 


IK 'USE   SANITATION 


the  science  of  health  are  laid,  the  rest  on  a  larger  scale 
will  necessarily  follow." 

The  idea  of  considering  the  house  as  a  unit  of  health 
is  essentially  modern.  It  was,  indeed,  an  impossible  one 
until  the  knowledge  was  available  which  has  been  acquired 
in  recent  years.  The  fact  that  it  is  so  generally  accepted 
today  shows  that  our  views  have  changed  materially  in 
respect  to  two  points,  viz.,  the  relation  of  private  to  public 
rights  and  the  causation  of  disease. 

In  the  first  place,  a  man's  house  is  no  longer  considered 
his  castle,  to  use  as  he  pleases  regardless  of  the  welfare 
of  other  people.  Modern  sanitary  law  greatly  abridges 
the  rights  of  the  householder  in  recognizing  that  his 
possession  involves  obligations  to  his  neighbors  and  can- 
not be  used  in  a  way  which  may  prove  harmful  to  them. 

In  the  second  place,  ideas  in  regard  to  disease  have 
undergone  radical  change.  The  early  Christian  view  was 
that  disease  was  caused  by  the  wrath  of  God  or  the  malice 
of  Satan,  or  by  a  combination  of  both.  Since  the  source 
of  disease  was  supernatural,  it  was  considered  irreligious 
"to  use  natural  means  for  combating  it.  Methods  of  cure 
were  logically  based  on  the  two  ideas  of  striving  to 
appease  the  divine  anger  which  had  been  aroused  because 
)af  sin  and  of  eluding  the  malice  of  Satan.  On  the  one 
hand,  help  was  sought  by  prayer,  visits  to  shrines,  pil- 
grimages, gifts  to  the  church,  and  similar  practices 
reputed  to  be  effective  in  renewing  divine  favor ;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  malice  of  Satan  was  to  be  thwarted  by 
the  persecution  and  murder  of  his  supposed  emissaries, 
especially  Jews  and  witches.  The  proof  that  the  Jews 
were  particularly  chosen  for  this  office  lay  in  the  fact 


THE    NEW    SANITATION  3 

that  they  were  remarkably  free  from  disease.  It  is  now 
known  that  their  rigid  adherence  to  the  Mosaic  code  of 
sanitation,  which  was  to  them  a  religious  duty,  was  the 
true  explanation  of  their  exemption. 

In  consequence  of  these  views,  measures  which  in 
modern  times  would  be  called  sanitary  reform  were  looked 
upon  as  impious.  Even  to  the  present  day,  phrases  linger 
in  popular  speech  which  express  the  old  view,  as,  for 
example,  after  an  epidemic  of  a  contagious  disease  lead- 
ing to  much  loss  of  life,  the  explanation  is  still  sometimes 
offered  that  the  disaster  was  "due  to  an  inscrutable 
Providence,"  "a  divine  visitation,"  "the  result  of  natural 
sin,"  or  "the  rebuke  of  God." 

Such  influences  greatly  delayed  the  progress  of  scien- 
tific thought,  for  any  attempt  at  another  explanation  met 
with  opposition  and  ridicule,  reen forced  by  religious 
fervor  and  fanaticism.  But  the  onward  march  of  knowl- 
edge could  not  be  permanently  stopped.  Facts  gradually 
accumulated  whose  antagonism  to  the  established  theory 
aroused  questionings.  It  became  clear,  foi  instance,  that 
pestilence  was  not  limited  to  heretical  countries  or  to 
ungodly  people. 

In  time,  many  forms  of  disease  were  seen  to  be  in 
some  way  connected  with  uncleanliness,  and  that  there 
was  some  connection  between  the  spread  of  disease  and 
the  water  supply  became  evident.  John  Wesley's  dictum, 
"Cleanliness  next  to  Godliness,"  expressed  the  new  idea 
from  which  results  have  already  come  which  have  greatly 
affected  society.  The  impetus  to  hygienic  research  came 
largely  through  the  practical  efforts  of  Sir  Edwin  Chad- 
wick,  properly  called  "the  father  of  sanitary  reform." 


4  HOUSE    SANITATION 

The  modern  science  of  bacteriology,  a  marvel  in  the 
rapidity  of  its  development,  has  contributed  in  an  extraor- 
dinary measure  to  men's  knowledge  of  ways  in  which 
many  kinds  of  disease  are  caused,  spread,  and  controlled. 

A  change  of  view  on  the  part  of  the  clergy  has  natur- 
ally followed  close  upon  this  new  knowledge.  It  is  said 
that  after  a  bishop  had  issued  a  call  to  prayer  to  ward 
off  cholera,  one  clergyman  refused  on  the  ground  that 
it  would  be  blasphemous  to  seek  help  from  prayer,  con- 
sidering the  filthy  condition  of  the  streets,  and  he  urged 
the  members  of  his  church  to  clean  up  the  town.  Fast- 
ing, penance,  and  prayer  are  now  recognized  as  ineffec- 
tive substitutes  for  obedience  to  the  divine  law  in  the 
physical  realm. 

As  science  has  been  reenforced  by  rational  and  active 
practical  effort,  several  diseases,  such  as  cholera,  typhus, 
and  plague,  have  almost  disappeared.  Many  other  dis- 
eases, it  has  been  proved,  can  be  controlled  to  a  great 
extent  and  perhaps  ultimately  exterminated.  Tubercu- 
losis is  a  noteworthy  example. 

As  sanitary  science  has  developed,  light  has  been 
thrown  on  a  good  many  obscure  points,  and  views  con- 
cerning other  points,  especially  the  real  significance  of 
uncleanliness,  have  had  to  be  materially  altered.  As  a  re- 
sult, there  is  need  of  many  changes  in  sanitary  practice. 
This  is  shown  by  the  increasing  use  of  such  terms  as 
"The  New  Public  Health,"  "Profitable  and  Fruitless 
Lines  of  Endeavor  in  Public  Health  Work,"  "Public 
Health  Fallacies,"  and  "Sources  and  Modes  of  Infec- 
tion," which  are  becoming  familiar  through  the  teachings 
of  progressive  and  scientific  sanitarians. 


THE    NEW    SANITATION  5 

The  pith  of  the  matter  is  thus  stated  by  Dr.  H.  W.  Hill 
in  a  series  of  illuminating  articles  on  "The  Control  of 
Infectious  Diseases":  "The  old  sanitation  was  concerned  / 
with  the  environment,  the  new  is  concerned  with  the 
individual,  and  finds  the  sources  of  infectious  disease  in 
man  himself  rather  than  in  his  surroundings."  Dr.  Hill 
pictures  "the  old  ideas  that  slum  dwellers  live  like  pigs 
and  therefore  invoke  the  coming  of  smallpox,  scarlet 
fever,  typhoid  fever,  and  diphtheria.  If  these  diseases 
invaded  the  homes  of  well-to-do,  a  pin  hole  in  the  plumb- 
ing accounted  for  diphtheria,  rotten  potatoes  in  the  cellar 
for  typhoid,  manure  piles  for  cholera,  ground  air  for 
malaria,  impure  water  for  yellow  fever.  Tuberculosis 
was  considered  hereditary  and  bubonic  plague  could  be 
banished  by  improved  ventilation." 

Dr.  Hill  also  points  out  that  "the  old-style  sanitary 
inspector  usually  condemned  everything  in  sight,  from  the 
garbage  pail  at  the  back  door  to  the  plumbing  in  the  bath- 
room. But  what  availed  it  that  the  garbage  pail  was 
emptied  every  day  or  a  vent  pipe  placed  on  the  bath  water 
waste  pipe,  if  the  milkman  delivered  scarlet- fever  infected* 
milk  or  an  unrecognized  case  of  measles  sat  next  the 
children  at  school?" 

Modern  sanitarians  are  urging  that  public  funds 
appropriated  for  sanitary  measures  should  be  expended 
in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  the  spread  of  disease.  The 
mistaken  idea  should  be  abandoned  that  everything  which 
tends  toward  comfort,  beauty,  good  order,  and  even  in- 
directly toward  health,  such  as  street  cleaning,  garbage 
disposal,  and  smoke  prevention,  belongs  to  the  health  de- 
partment. Dr.  C.  V.  Chapin,  in  his  work  on  "The  Sources 


6  HOUSE    SANITATION 

and  Modes  of  Infection,"  states  his  belief  that  such 
municipal  improvements  belong  no  more  to  the  health 
officials  than  do  "  free  transfers,  cheaper  commutation 
tickets,  lower  prices  for  coal,  less  shoddy  in  clothing,  or 
more  rubber  in  rubbers — all  good  things  in  their  way 
and  tending  towards  comfort  and  health." 

The  housekeeper  should  understand  that  a  broken 
bed-spring,  a  worn-out  stove,  a  tumble-down  chair,  or 
even  more  offensive  rubbish  in  a  vacant  lot  near  her  house, 
is  not  a  menace  to  health  and  is  not  a  concern  of  sanitary 
officials.  If  these  objects  are  offensive  to  her  and  the 
standard  of  municipal  housekeeping  is  not  very  high,  her 
complaint  should  be  remedied  by  an  appeal  to  a  private 
agency,  such  as  a  Municipal  Art  League.  Instances  could 
be  multiplied  to  show  that  the  housekeeper  needs  to  be 
well  informed  as  to  advances  in  sanitary  knowledge,  u^ 
order  to  direct  her  efforts  intelligently  and  effectively. 

A  few  illustrations  of  interest  to  the  housekeeper  will 
show  changes  in  sanitary  theory  which  have  been  abun- 
dantly and  conclusively  proved.  In  nearly  every  case 
popular  opinion  and  sanitary  enactment,  as  well  as,  too 
frequently,  expert  practice,  have  lagged  far  behind  in 
making  readjustments,  and  thus  lead  to  waste  in  every 
kind  of  expenditure.  The  statements  are  made  in  brief 
and  positive  form,  and  together  with  others  will  be  con- 
sidered more  fully  in  later  chapters. 

Night  air  is  purer  than  day  air,  and  should  be  admitted 
freely  to  the  house. 

Gases  from  marshes  do  not  cause  malaria. 

The  quality  of  the  air  in  the  breathing  zone  is  more 
important  than  the  general  air  of  the  room. 


THE    NEW    SANITATION  7 

The  quantity  of  carbon  dioxide  or  "carbonic  acid" 
is  not  a  measure  of  the  unhealthfulness  of  air. 

Ordinary  variations  in  the  normal  gaseous  constitu- 
ents of  air  produce  no  apparent  effects. 

High  humidity,  combined  with  high  temperature, 
produces  the  discomfort  ordinarily  attributed  to  "bad 
air,"  and  is  unhealthful. 

Ordinary  buildings  and  rooms  ventilate  themselves  to 
a  considerable  extent.  A  small  house  needs  comparatively 
less  provision  for  change  of  air  than  a  large  building. 

Air  from  properly  constructed  sewers  is  not  harmful." 

Sunlight  cannot  be  depended  on  for  disinfection  or 
as  a  substitute  for  cleanliness.  Its  value  is  physiological, 
psychical,  and  chiefly  moral. 

Actual  light  rather  than  window  area  should  be  the 
measure  of  the  efficiency  of  room  lighting. 

Odors  are  not  harmful  physically,  but  when  un- 
pleasant should  be  eliminated  by  cleansing  methods  rather 
than  by  ventilation. 

Disinfection  as  ordinarily  practiced,  especially  by 
amateurs,  is  practically  valueless. 

The  housekeeper  must  not  be  misled  by  the  new 
sanitation  into  the  belief  that  the  means  at  her  command 
for  promoting  the  health  of  her  household  have  almost 
reached  the  vanishing  point,  since  ground,  air,  and  plumb- 
ing have  lost  so  many  of  their  terrors.  On  the  contrary, 
the  implications  in  the  modern  views,  if  fully  understood 
and  intelligently  acted  upon,  give  her  greater  opportuni- 
ties than  she  has  ever  had  and  lay  upon  her  still  heavier 
responsibilities.  This  new  phase  of  house  sanitation, « 
which  trenches  closely  upon  personal  hygiene,  needs  more 


8  HOUSE    SANITATION 

attention  than  it  is  receiving  and  will  be  discussed  in 
later  chapters.  Health  depends  in  part  on  freedom  from 
infection.  The  probability  of  obtaining  that  freedom  will 
be  greatly  increased  by  maintaining  the  body  at  a  high 
state  of  vigor  or  "vitality,"  as  it  is  popularly  called.  This 
implies  the  promotion  of  all  agencies  which  have  to  do 
with  physical  well-being,  as  well  as  with  the  control  of 
sources  of  infection ;  and  in  so  far  as  such  agencies  are 
made  use  of  within  the  house,  they  belong  properly  to, 
house  sanitation. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  RESPONSIBILITY  OF  THE  HOUSEKEEPER 

IN  promoting  the  sanitation  of  the  house,  the  house- 
keeper should  realize  that  she  is  helping  to  solve 
important  social  and  economic  problems.  The  character 
of  the  place  in  which  people  live  and  spend  more  than 
half  their  time  necessarily  has  a  close  relation  to  their 
social  and  economic  efficiency.  This  is  recognized -by  sani- 
tary congresses,  boards  of  health,  and  students  of  scien- 
tific and  social  questions,  but  it  remains  for  the  house- 
keeper in  her  home  to  put  into  practice  those  views  which 
otherwise  would  remain  unrelated  to  human  welfare. 

This  responsibility  affords  an  opportunity  for  very 
real  service  and  should  not  be  assumed  lightly  or  without 
adequate  preparation.  Abundant  knowledge,  a  fine  power 
of  observation  and  discrimination,  and  executive  ability 
are  qualities  that  are  needed  if  the  best  results  are  to  be 
secured.  Hardly  less  important  is  an  attitude  of  mind 
or  poise  which  enables  the  housekeeper  to  be  always  mis- 
tress of  herself  and  of  the  forces  she  directs,  so  that  un- 
certainties, perplexities,  and  even  alarms  which  she  may 
experience  will  not  needlessly  disturb  her  household.  In 
studying  the  principles  of  house  sanitation,  she  will  find 
that  conditions  are  not  always  directly  under  her  control. 
She  must  know  how  to  act  when  such  conditions  arise 
so  as  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  harm  which  might 
come — in  other  words,  she  should  be  resourceful.  She 

9 


IO  HOUSE    SANITATION 

should  at  the  outset  have  complete  familiarity  with  the 
house  in  which  she  lives. 

The  purchaser  of  a  house  demands  and  is  willing  to 
pay  for  a  clear  legal  title  to  the  property;  there  should 
be  the  same  demand  and  the  same  willingness  to  pay  for 
a  clear  sanitary  title,  i.  e.,  assurance  that  the  house  con- 
forms in  all  respects  to  the  best  known  laws  of  sanitation. 
A  purchaser  or  tenant  should  have  as  perfect  a  guaranty 
of  the  latter  as  of  the  former. 

The  time  must  come  soon  when,  in  order  to  sell  or 
let  houses,  the  owners  or  agents  will  be  required  to  show 
a  certificate  secured  through  expert  examination  regard- 
ing the  perfect  sanitary  condition  of  each  house.  Already 
some  wise  landlords  show  such  certificates.  In  general, 
however,  the  purchaser  or  tenant  must  look  out  for  this 
himself,  remembering  that  all  expense  incurred  is  for  the 
safety,  health,  and  possibly  the  lives  of  his  wife  and 
children  and  himself. 

Wherever  there  is  a  Board  of  Health,  an  Inspector  of 
Buildings,  or  a  Board  of  Examiners,  they  may  be  con- 
sulted as  to  the  laws  of  that  town  or  city,  since  as  yet 
there  is  little  uniformity  as  to  details.  But,  because  the 
members  of  these  boards  are  not  always  themselves  ex- 
perts, and  because  the  standard  of  public  opinion  does  not 
as  yet  demand  that  they  shall  be,  full  reliance  cannot,  in 
all  cases,  be  placed  upon  inspection  by  public  authorities. 

In  houses  already  occupied,  the  heating  and  plumbing 
systems  should  be  closely  watched.  If  defect  is  suspected, 
any  person  in  the  house  may  make  a  complaint  to  the 
Board  of  Health  and  inspection  will  be  made  without 
expense. 


RESPONSIBILITY   OF    THE    HOUSEKEEPER  II 

Given  a  house  in  perfect*  sanitary  condition  at  the 
start,  the  housewife  should  know  what  is  required  to 
keep  it  in  like  condition.  Barring  accidents,  cleanness 
and  pure  air  will  usually  insure  a  condition  of  safety. 
She  should  then  know  what  accidents  are  liable  to  happen 
and  how  to  keep  the  entire  house  clean.  The  object  of 
the  following  chapters  is  to  give  her  this  knowledge.  The 
questions  are  so  framed  that  an  affirmative  answer  implies 
a  satisfactory  arrangement,  while  the  question  itself 
suggests  a  remedy,  if  the  answer  is  negative. 

In  thus  pointing  out  the  sources  of  danger  and  the 
ideal  standards  of  sanitation  in  the  perfectly  healthful 
house,  it  is  not  the  intention  unnecessarily  to  alarm  or 
discourage  the  householder.  The  new  sanitation,  indeed, 
removes  many  of  the  terrors  of  former  times.  The  aim 
is  to  urge  the  intelligent  oversight  of  these  matters,  and 
to  indicate  the  points  requiring  investigation,  the  methods 
of  examination,  and  the  practical  remedies. 

The  conditions  required  under  the  two  topics  (Situa- 
tion and  Plumbing)  which  open  the  subject  may  seem 
as  difficult  of  realization,  especially  to  those  already 
settled  in  their  homes,  as  they  are  important.  But  while 
the  suggestions  will  be  of  greater  value  to  those  con- 
sidering the  choice  of  a  residence,  it  is  believed  that  they 
will  also  show  to  those  who  assume  the  conditions  of 
their  houses  to  be  beyond  their  control  that  the  remedy 
frequently  lies  within  their  reach.  The  second  topic 
(Plumbing)  is  necessarily  somewhat  technical;  but  it  is 
hoped  that  the  explanations  in  the  notes  will  .prove  the 
difficulties  to  be  more  apparent  than  real,  and  that  the 
principles  will  be  easily  understood. 


\ 


12  HOUSE    SANITATION 

It  is  unavoidable  that,  in  a  subject  so  full  of  -detail, 
some  of  the  points  should  appear  in  themselves  trivial,  and 
the  risk  to  health,  incurred  in  ignoring  them,  very  slight ; 
but  the  sum  of  such  trifles  often  makes  the  difference 
between  physical  vigor  and  weakness,  and  the  risk,  small 
as  it  is,  is  greater  and  more  serious  than  that  from  fire, 
against  which  the  householder  always  insures  himself. 

One  of  the  most  dangerous  qualities  of  the  unsanitary 
house  is  that  it  slowly  and  insidiously  causes  ill  health  and 
general  languor,  which  incapacitate  for  sustained  effort, 
and  to  which  women,  from  their  greater  confinement  to 
the  house,  are  especially  subject. 

In  conclusion,  the  householder  must  be  reminded  that 
it  is  not  enough  to  secure  right  sanitary  conditions ;  they 
must  be  maintained.  This  can  be  done  only  through  the 
eternal  vigilance  of  the  housekeeper,  who  can  thus,  in 
large  measure,  secure  the  two  essentials  of  a  happy  home 
— good  health  and  its  attendant,  good  nature. 

The  following  motto  should  be  the  basis  of  her 
efforts : 

"Any  invention  intended  to  be  a  substitute  for  watch- 
fulness will  prove  a  delusion  and  a  snare." 


CHAPTER  III 

SITUATION  OF  THE  HOUSE  AND  CARE  OF 
THE  CELLAR 

THE  location  and  surroundings  of  the  house  are  of 
the  first  importance  from  a  sanitary  standpoint. 
Folding  doors  and  carved  mantelpieces  are  attractive  to 
the  house  hunter;  but  the  satisfaction  they  give  may  be 
more  than  offset  by  the  disagreeable  or  harmful  effects 
of  a  neighboring  marsh,  a  wet,  dark  cellar,  a  lack  of 
sunshine,  or  by  unpleasant  surroundings,  such  as  factories 
and  smoking  chimneys.  As  W.  P.  Gerhard  well  says: 
"It  must  be  constantly  borne  in  mind  that,  while  defec- 
tive construction  may  generally  be  remedied,  unhealthy 
surroundings,  an  undesirable  aspect,  or  insalubrious 
building  site  cannot  be  changed." 

If,  then,  a  house  ready  built  is  to  be  rented  or  bought, 
it  is  not  sufficient  that  the  style  of  architecture  and  the 
social  aspect  of  the  locality  be  considered.  The  seeker 
for  a  house  which  is  to  be  not  only  a  beautiful  but  a 
healthful  home  must  carefully  consider  the  far  more 
important  points  of  character  of  soil,  age  of  house, 
honesty  of  construction,  style  of  plumbing  and  of  heat- 
ing apparatus,  and  the  possibilities  of  sunlight  and  air. 

Until  there  is  opened  in  every  city  and  town  an  office 
from  which  trained  inspectors  can  be  obtained — men  or 
women  who  understand  what  living  in  a  house  means 
and  what  dangers  come  in  the  using  of  apparatus  which 

13 


14  HOUSE    SANITATION 

while  new  and  untried  seems  to  be  correct  in  principle — 
until  then  the  house  hunter  must  herself  understand  the 
cardinal  points  of  safety. 

The  chief  essentials  to  be  secured  are  pure  air,  sun- 
light,  and  dryness.  These  are  conditions  upon  which 
physical  and  mental  vigor  largely  depend.  Without  them 
the  human  system  loses  its  power  of  resistance  to  disease. 
Rheumatism  and  consumption  are  diseases  which  seem 
to  be  peculiarly  prevalent  in  their  absence,  and  many 
forms  of  organic  life,  known  familiarly  to  us  in  the  form 
of  decay  and  mold,  thrive  only  in  dampness  and  darkness. 
An  ample  supply  of  pure  or  clean  water  is  also  essential. 

Clean  soil  is  the  primary  factor  in  making  possible 
clean  air  and  clean  water.  As  sanitary  views  have 
changed  greatly  in  relation  to  the  hygienic  significance 
of  the  soil,  a  few  general  principles  should  be  clearly 
understood,  especially  as  they  tend  to  do  away  with  a 
great  many  of  the  disturbing  ideas  which  used  to  be  held 
in  regard  to  the  ground.  Health  was  supposed  to  be  con- 
stantly menaced  by  ground  air  and  ground  water,  but  it 
is  now  known  that  neither  air  nor  water  can  cause  disease 
simply  because  it  is  in  the  ground. 

We  usually  think  of  air  as  only  above  ground,  not 
as  moving  about  in  it,  and  seldom  realize  how  great  the 
amount  of  ground  air  is  until  we  try  the  simple  experi- 
ment of  pouring  water  into  a  potful  of  dry  earth,  and 
notice  how  much  water  the  earth  will  absorb  in  the  space 
before  occupied  by  air.  This  air  is,  of  course,  originally 
the  same  as  atmospheric  air.  When  it  gets  into  the 
ground  it  usually  undergoes  some  changes  due  to  vegeta- 
tion. The  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  and  of  water  in- 


SITUATION    OF   THE    HOUSE  15 

creases  and  of  oxygen  decreases  wherever  there  is  decay 
of  vegetable  matter.  These  changes  were  formerly 
thought  to  make  the  air  very  unwholesome,  but  it  is  now 
known  that  ground  air  changed  only  in  this  way  and  to 
the  extent  which  takes  place  in  the  ground  is  quite  harm- 
less. Other  things,  however,  may  go  on  in  the  ground 
which  will  bring  about  undesirable  changes.  Defective 
drains  and  decaying  animal  matter  may  produce  offensive 
gases  which  will  mix  with  the  ground  air,  but  even  then 
the  changes  are  not  thought  to  be  sufficient  in  amount 
or  harmful  enough  in  kind  to  lead  to  disease.  If,  how- 
ever, there  are  gas  pipes  in  the  ground  which  leak,  it  is 
another  matter,  for  one  of  the  components  of  illuminating 
gas  produces  very  serious  and  even  fatal  consequences 
if  breathed,  and  should  on  no  account  be  allowed  to  get 
into  the  house.  It  is  also  true  that  there  are  no  gaseous 
exhalations  from  marshes  which  cause  disease.  A  spe- 
cial kind  of  mosquito  which  may  infest  such  places  and 
is  quite  as  likely  to  be  found  breeding  in  any  little  puddle  r 
and  which  flies  about  especially  at  night,  is  now  known 
to  be  the  cause  of  the  trouble  which  has  given  such  a  bad 
name  to  ground  air  and  to  night  air.  It  will  be  readily 
seen  that  in  deciding  upon  measures  intended  to  keep 
ground  air  out  of  the  house,  the  housekeeper  needs  to 
know  whether  it  is  likely  to  be  polluted  in  any  dangerous 
way. 

Materials  ordinarily  used  for  the  construction  of  cellar 
walls  are  more  pervious  to  moisture  and  air  than  is 
generally  supposed.  Dry  brick,  for  example,  is  so  porous 
that  it  can  take  up  about  twenty-five  per  cent  of  its  weight 
of  water,  and  even  the  finest  grained  stones  absorb  some 


1 6  HOUSE    SANITATION 

moisture  and  allow  air  to  pass  through  them.  If,  then, 
the  expense  involved  in  making  cellar  walls  and  floor 
quite  impervious  to  air  simply  results  in  keeping  out  some- 
thing which  is  harmless,  it  is  a  waste  of  money  which 
should  go  to  meet  real  needs.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
there  is  certainty  or  even  probability  that  the  ground  air 
may  be  polluted,  it  should  be  kept  out  at  any  cost.  This 
is  an  illustration  of  the  many  ways  in  which  the  house- 
keeper should  be  guided  by  exact  knowledge  rather  than 
by  any  rule  of  thumb. 

Similar  statements  may  be  made  in  regard  to  ground 
water.  Fifty  years  ago  a  distinguished  physician  of 
Massachusetts  -announced  the  law  of  soil  moisture,  to  the 
effect  that  residence  on  a  damp  soil  is  a  primal  cause  of 
consumption,  which  can  be  checked  or  prevented  by  atten- 
tion to  this  fact.  This  was  before  the  discovery  of  the 
germ  which  causes  this  disease  and  without  which  no 
amount  of  moisture  can  cause  it.  The  belief  now  is  that 
the  relation  between  them  is  probably  quite  indirect  and 
due  merely  to  the  fact  that  dampness  depresses  vitality.- 
It  is  certainly  true  that  a  great  many  effects  formerly 
attributed  to  moisture  are  due  to  other  causes.  It  is  also 
true  that  until  the  matter  is  less  obscure  than  it  is  at 
present,  the  safe  course  is  to  avoid  excessive  moisture 
in  the  soil,  such  as  is  likely  to  exist  where  the  level  of 
the  ground  water  is  high  and  the  soil  of  such  a  character 
that  surface  water  does  not  drain  from  it  easily  and 
quickly. 

Still  another  charge  against  the  ground  has  been  dis- 
proved. It  was  formerly  thought  to  be  crowded  with 
disease  germs.  The  truth  is  that  there  is  only  one  patho- 


SITUATION    OF    THE    HOUSE  I/ 

genie  or  disease-producing  form  harmful  to  human  beings 
whose  normal  habitat  is  the  ground,  and  that  is  the  germ 
which  causes  tetanus  or  lockjaw.  If  other  disease  germs 
gain  access  to  the  ground,  they  quickly  perish.  They  lack 
the  proper  food,  the  temperature  is  unfavorable,  and 
there  are  present  many  other  kinds  of  germs  which  are 
inimical  to  them.  Such  germs  as  those  of  typhoid  fever 
may  be  washed  into  the  ground  and  pollute  water  sup- 
plies, but  they  do  not  survive  long  and  cannot  be  drawn 
up  into  the  air,  as  the  currents  are  not  strong  enough. 
Just  as  in  the  case  of  gaseous  impurities,  the  housekeeper 
needs  to  know  whether  there  is  the  possibility  of  disease 
germs  getting  into  the  ground  near  her  house  and  then 
should  act  accordingly. 

The  emanations  from  fresh,  upturned  earth  cause 
alarm  to  a  great  many  people  and  are  popularly  supposed 
to  produce  disease.  Investigations  which  have  been  made 
where  sewer  construction  has  been  followed  by  malaria 
or  typhoid  fever  prove  that  these  diseases  have  been  im- 
ported by  laborers  who  harbored  the  parasite  or  the  germ 
of  the  disease,  and  have  not  been  due  to  the  upturned 
soil. 

These  considerations  show  that  it  is  not  harmful  for 
people  to  live  on  clean  ground  or  even  below  the  sur- 
face, as  in  basements,  if  they  have  proper  conditions  and 
maintain  right  standards  of  cleanliness.  It  is  considered 
very  healthful  to  sleep  close  to  the  ground  in  camps,  and 
when  people  live  on  boats  they  often  sleep  below  the 
level  of  the  water  without  harm  from  that  cause. 

In  any  settled  community  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
know  the  actual  condition  of  the  ground  on  which  the 


1 8  HOUSE    SANITATION 

house  is.  Accordingly,  it  is  always  a  safe  procedure  to 
avoid  dampness,  darkness,  and  dust  catchers  in  the  house, 
and  as  much  sunlight,  as  dry  a  soil,  as  free  circulation 
of  air  as  possible,  and  as  much  opportunity  for  a  generous 
use  of  soap  and  water  without  injury  to  anything  are  to 
be  desired. 

The  following  directions  will  help  the  housekeeper 
in  determining  what  points  to  observe: 

Look  to  the  condition  of  street,  yard,  rain  gutters, 
cellar  walls,  cellar  floor,  and  dark  closets,  if  any. 

Note  if  there  is  any  appearance  of  mold — the  odor 
will  usually  betray  it ;  of  leaks  in  walls  or  roof. 

Note  the  sun  plan ;  that  is,  the  hours  in  the  day  during 
which  the  sun  can  shine  into  each  room  both  winter  and 
summer,  remembering  that  sunlight  is  a  great  help  in 
maintaining  healthful  conditions. 

Note  relation  of  windows  to  the  prevailing  direction 
of  the  wind. 

Note  character  of  interior  construction  and  finish  with 
reference  to  holding  dust. 

Examine  the  drainage  plan  from  attic  to  cellar. 
Never  move  into  a  house  the  drainage  pipes  of  which 
are  so  built  in  that  they  cannot  be  readily  seen.  Note  the 
traps,  the  slope  of  the  main  pipes,  etc. 

Secure  a  written  statement  from  the  city  inspector ; 
if  possible,  be  present  when  the  inspection  is  made. 

Every  housewife  should  know  the  "sewer  odor";  it 
is  as  characteristic  as  that  of  onions,  and  its  presence 
shows  that  the  sewers  are  not  carrying  off  waste  matters 
as  quickly  and  completely  as  they  should. 

Examine   the   heating   apparatus;   note   if  the   cold- 


SITUATION    OF    THE    HOUSE  IQ 

air  box,  etc.,  answers  to  the  requirements  given  in 
Chapter  VI. 

Note  the  possibilities  of  obtaining  a  quick  change  of 
air  in  every  room. 

Carefully  inspect  the  apparatus  for  water  supply — 
the  tank  in  the  attic,  if  there  is  one  (each  water-closet 
must  have  its  own  separate  flush-tank)  ;  avoid  the  use  of 
a  well  in  any  thickly  settled  region.  Learn  from  compe- 
tent authority  if  the  town  supply  is  well  cared  for.  Be- 
ware of  house  filters ;  water,  that  prime  necessity  of 
human  life,  should  be  like  Caesar's  wife — above  suspicion. 

Much  of  the  air  which  enters  the  different  rooms  of 
the  house  comes  from  the  cellar.  A  heated  house  acts  like 
a  chimney.  Not  only  does  it  draw  in  air  from  the  ground 
through  the  cellar  walls  and  floor,  unless  they  are  made 
impervious,  but  the  movement  of  air  is  from  the  bottom 
upwards,  and  the  air  of  the  cellar  makes  its  way  into 
every  part  of  the  house.  A  German  experimenter  proved 
that  one  half  of  the  cellar  air  made  its  way  into  the  first 
story,  one  third  into  the  second,  and  one  fifth  into  the 
third.  The  upward  movement  of  air  is  shown  frequently 
by  ceilings.  The  dark  streaks  are  formed  by  the  deposit 
of  dust  from  the  air  which  passes  through  the  plastering. 

These  facts  prove  the  necessity  of  especially  consider- 
ing the  cellar  in  its  function  of  a  reservoir  of  air  for 
the  whole  house ;  and  it  will  be  readily  agreed  that  there 
is  little  use  in  adopting  special  methods  of  ventilation  for 
the  living  rooms  and  sleeping  rooms  if  foul  air  is  allowed 
constantly  to  rise  from  the  cellar.  Therefore,  during 
most  of  the  year  there  should  be  a  free  circulation  of  air 
through  screened  open  windows.  In  very  hot  summer 


2O  HOUSE    SANITATION 

days  the  windows  should  be  closed  during  the  day  to 
prevent  the  deposit  of  moisture  upon  the  walls. 

The  reader  may  exclaim,  "Why,  you  would  be  more 
particular  about  the  cellar  than  the  parlor!"  and  she 
would  not  be  far  from  right.  The  day  has  not  passed 
when  a  contemplated  visit  to  a  cellar  is,  in  many  cases, 
a  cause  of  some  trepidation  and  alarm.  There  are  the 
breakneck  stairs  to  grope  down,  and  some  calculation  is 
needed  to  land  in  safety  on  the  board  floating  about  at 
the  bottom.  A  few  steps  farther  and  the  intruder  may 
knock  her  head  against  a  hanging  shelf,  covered  with  an 
accumulation  of  fragments  of  food.  She  decides  that  a 
little  fresh  air  would  be  desirable.  She  makes  her  way 
toward  one  of  the  narrow  windows  through  whose  cover- 
ing of  cobwebs  and  dust  a  few  rays  of  light  straggle. 
The  first  attempt  to  open  a  window  is  a  failure,  for  the 
coal-bin  forms  an  impassable  barrier;  and  the  second 
window  is  as  inaccessible,  because  of  the  row  of  old 
barrels,  filled  with  decaying  vegetables  and  household 
rubbish,  which  are  placed  against  the  cellar  wall.  The 
only  other  inlet  for  fresh  air  is  the  cellar  door,  which  is 
too  heavy  to  lift,  and  the  visitor  is  forced  to  retreat  with- 
out fulfilling  her  good  resolve. 

For  the  reverse  of  this  picture  we  may  refer  to  the 
cellar  which  is  not  only  sanitarily  ideal  but  practically 
possible.  It  is  as  light  and  dry  and  clean  as  any  room  in 
the  house.  The  windows  are  large,  are  on  different  sides, 
and  can  be  opened  easily.  The  walls  are  free  from  dust 
and  cobwebs,  and  look  quite  attractive  in  their  coat  of 
whitewash.  The  sweetness  and  purity  of  the  air  are  not 
only  a  satisfaction  to  the  good  housekeeper  when  she  in- 


SITUATION    OF   THE    HOUSE  21 

spects  her  cellar,  but  they  have  much  to  do  with  the  'well- 
being  of  the  family.  The  following  questions  suggest 
methods  of  keeping  undue  dampness  and  harmful 
ground  air  out  of  the  cellar  and  of  providing  suitable 
and  healthful  surroundings  for  the  house. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  When  you  selected  your  house  did  you  make  sure 
that  it  was  in  a  healthful  locality  as  well  as  in  a  convenient 
and  fashionable  one? 

2.  If  the  house  is  situated  on  rising  ground,  is  the 
surface  water  (from  rains)  carried  away  on  all  sides  by 
either  natural  or  artificial  drains  ? 

3.  If    the    ground    is    level,    are    there    under-drains 
carrying  away  the  rain  water? 

4.  Are  special  pains  taken  to  see  that  there  are  no 
leaking  drains  or  cesspools,  defective  gas  pipes,  or  other 
sources  of  contamination  for  the  ground  air  within  two 
hundred  feet  of  the  house? 

5.  If  the  soil  is  clayey  and  compact,  is  there  special 
provision  for  drainage  and  for  keeping  water  out  of  the 
cellar? 

6.  Is  the  house  far  removed  (by  at  least  a  quarter  of 
a  mile)  from  garbage  dumps  or  pools  of  stagnant  water 
where  flies  or  mosquitoes  could  breed? 

7.  Are  the  first  floor  beams  of  the  house  laid  upon 
stone,  concrete,  or  brick  foundations,  three  to  six  feet 
above  the  ground  ? 

Note. — Only  about  half  the  height  of  the  cellar  is  then 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 


22  HOUSE    SANITATION 

8.  Is  there'  a  cellar  or  ventilated  air  space  under  the 
whole  house? 

9.  Are  the  .vegetables  and  other  perishable  articles 
stored  in  a  light,  cool,  and  dry  room  walled  off  from  the 
main  part  of  the  cellar,  especially  if  it  contains  a  heating 
plant  ? 

10.  Is  the  cellar  perfectly  dry  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year  ? 

11.  If  not,  are  special  drains  laid  under  the  cellar 
floor? 

12.  If  the  ground  air  around  the  house  is  not  clean 
and  dry,  are  the  floor  and  walls  of  the  cellar  made  im- 
pervious by  asphalt  or  other  means  ? 

13.  Is  the  cellar  thoroughly  cleaned  and  whitewashed 
with  lime  every  spring? 

Note. — Lime  is  a  good  disinfectant. 

14.  Has  the  cellar  several  windows  on  opposite  sides, 
if  possible,  so  that  it  is  light  and  well  aired? 

15.  Is  care  taken  to  keep  the  ground  outside  the  cellar 
windows  free  from  any  contamination  ? 

1 6.  Are  these  windows  accessible? 

17.  Is  the  coal  cellar  a  light  and  dry  place? 

Note. — The  decomposition  of  the  sulphides  in  the  coal 
goes  on  much  more  rapidly  in  a  damp  atmosphere.  Sul- 
phides cause  silver  to  tarnish. 

1 8.  Do  the  living  rooms  and  sleeping  rooms  have  the 
sunshine  a  good  part  of  the  day  ? 

Note. — Shade  trees  often  surround  the  house  too 
closely  and  prevent  the  entrance  of  sunlight,  the  circula- 
tion of  fresh  air,  and  the  consequent  evaporation  of 
moisture. 


SITUATION    OF    THE    HOUSE  23 

19.  Are  there  windows  on  two  sides  of  every  room 
or  suite  of  rooms,  or  some  other  efficient  means  of  pro- 
ducing a  strong  current  of  air  when  needed? 

20.  Does  the  supply  of  drinking  water  come  from  a 
source  absolutely  free  from  contamination? 

Chiefly  applicable  to  a  city  house : 

21.  Is  the  street  pavement  usually  clean  and  dry? 

22.  Are  the  gutters  clean,  and  does  the  water  run 
freely  from  them  to  the  drain  ? 

23.  Are  the  alleys  well  paved  and  kept  clean? 

24.  If  the  lot  is  on  made  land: 

(a)  Have  you  consulted  old  topographical  maps,  in 
order  to  learn  the  original  character  of  the  soil  and  direc- 
tion of  the  water  courses? 

(b)  Was  the  site  well  drained  before  the  process  of 
rilling  in  was  begun  ? 

(c)  Does  the  soil  consist  of  gravel,  sand,  or  loam,  not 
a  mixture  of  ashes,  street  sweepings,  and  house  refuse? 

(d)  Have  some  years  passed  since  the  lot  was  filled 
in? 

25.  Is  the  back  yard  provided  with  a  drain  for  rain 
water,  and  is  the  drain  easy  of  access  for  cleanine"? 


CHAPTER  IV 
PLUMBING 

VIEWS  in  regard  to  plumbing  have  probably  changed 
more  radically  than  in  any  other  branch  of  house 
sanitation.  The  old  beliefs  have  led  to  certain  practices 
which  need  to  be  modified  in  the  interest  of  true 
sanitation. 

Less  than  a  generation  ago,  books  on  hygiene  fre- 
quently contained  such  passages  as  the  following:  "If 
we  look  for  the  cause  of  the  large  mortality  from  .zymotic 
diseases  in  our  cities,  we  find  it  principally  in  sewer-gas 
poisoning,"  or,  "To  bad  plumbing  we  may  attribute  the 
prevalence  of  pythogenic  pneumonia,  peritonitis,  inflam- 
matory rheumatism,  typhoid  and  malarial  fevers,  croup, 
diphtheria,  and  many  kindred  diseases."  It  was  generally 
believed  that  such  diseases  lurked  wherever  plumbing 
was  introduced.  People  read  and  heard  of  the  dangers 
threatening  them  from  typhoid  fever  and  diphtheria  if 
they, .had  water-closets,  bathtubs,  and  washbowls  in  their 
houses,  but  the  temptation  to  enjoy  the  comfort  and  con- 
venience of  these  appliances  often  got  the  better  of  their 
fears. 

When  the  germ  theory  of  disease  was  developed,  it 
was  seen  that  if  "sewer  gas,"  or,  more  properly,  sewer 
air,  caused  infectious  disease,  it  could  only  be  by  carry- 
ing the  specific  germs  of  the  disease.  It  was  proved, 
moreover,  that  germs  adhere  to  moist  surfaces  and  are 

24 


PLUMBING  25 

not  easily  given  off  from  liquids  into  the  surrounding  air 
except  by  splashing  or  very  strong  currents  of  air  or  the 
bursting  of  bubbles  of  gas  formed  by  decomposing  waste 
matter.  All  who  observed  normal  conditions  in  actual 
sewers  believed  that  the  danger  of  infection  was  slight. 

A  few  years  ago,  Major  Horrocks,  an  English  ex- 
perimenter, found  typhoid  organisms  in  a  vertical  pipe 
more  than  three  feet  above  the  liquid  through  which  the 
organisms  had  been  passed.  This  led  people  to  think  that 
perhaps,  after  all,  sewage  emanations  might  be  the  cause 
of  outbreaks  of  disease. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  observers  had  found  that 
the  number  of  bacteria  in  actual  sewer  air  is  extremely 
small,  and  that  they  are  generally  air  forms  and  not 
sewage  forms.  In  fact,  the  air  of  sewers  is  usually  freer 
from  bacteria  than  ordinary  atmospheric  air,  as  it  is 
usually  quieter,  and  this  gives  a  chance  for  the  bacteria 
to  settle.  Later,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Master  Plumb- 
ers' Association,  who  with  many  others  desired  to  have 
the  question  settled,  Dr.  Charles-Edward  A.  Winslow 
conducted  an  investigation  and  found  that  mechanical 
splashing  may  produce  a  local  infection  of  the  air  in 
immediate  contact  with  the  spray,  but  that  it  does  not 
extend  for  any  distance  or  persist  for  more  than  a  minute 
or  two,  and  then  only  four  times  in  two  hundred  liters 
of  air.  He  urged  that  sanitation  should  deal  with  prac- 
tical probabilities  rather  than  with  theoretical  possibilities, 
a  doctrine  which  housekeepers  may  well  take  to  heart. 

The  conclusion  from  his  experiments  is  that,  if  One 
were  to  breathe  for  twenty- four  hours  the  undiluted  air 
of  a  house-drainage  system  at  any  point  not  immediately 


26  HOUSE    SANITATION 

affected  by  mechanical  splashing,  less  than  fifty  intestinal 
bacteria  would  be  taken  in,  whereas  in  the  amount  of 
New  York  City  water  which  one  would  drink  in  the  same 
time  there  would  be  one  hundred,  or  twice  as  many, 
ingested.  The  contrast  in  the  probability  of  these  two 
experiences  occurring  to  any  one  living  in  New  York 
or,  in  fact,  in  any  city  is  quite  striking.  It  seems,  there- 
fore, that  the  chance  of  direct  bacterial  infection  through 
the  air  of  drains  and  sewers  is  extremely  slight. 

It  is  not  surely  known  what  effect  is  produced  by 
odors  and  gases  emanating  from  decomposing  matter.  It 
is  perfectly  clear,  however,  that,  if  the  process  of  carrying 
away  wastes  is  properly  conducted,  there  will  be  no  such 
emanations.  Many  plumbing  regulations  are,  however, 
of  such  a  nature  as  to  retard  the  flow  of  sewage  and 
furnish  conditions  favorable  for  decomposition.  These 
rules  are  based  on  the  old  idea  of  the  poisonous  quality 
of  sewer  air.  When  we  are  convinced  of  the  real  facts, 
we  shall  see  that  the  water-carriage  system  is  not  merely 
the  most  effective  but  the  most  sanitary  device  for  carry- 
ing away  liquid  waste  matter.  Scientific  experiment  and 
experience  alike  have  shown  that  the  threatened  dangers 
are  simply  bogies,  that  germ  diseases  cannot  originate  in 
the  plumbing,  and,  if  introduced,  the  germs  can  with  very 
great  difficulty  and  not  at  all  in  well-constructed  plumb- 
ing make  their  way  out  of  the  system  of  pipes  into  the 
house. 

Accordingly,  instead  of  reducing  the  number  of  fix- 
tures to  a  minimum  and  absolutely  prohibiting  the  use  of 
any  in  a  bedroom  or  a  room  without  a  window,  sanitarians 
are  urging  the  more  general  use  of  well-constructed 


PLUMBING  27 

plumbing  as  a  safe  and  adequate  means  of  maintaining 
proper  standards  of  personal  and  domestic  cleanliness. 
There  are  many  plumbing  codes  and  sets  of  building 
regulations  which  need  to  be  completely  revised  from  the 
point  of  view  of  modern  knowledge.  The  result  would 
undoubtedly  be  much  higher  standards  of  cleanliness  and 
more  general  sanitation,  accompanied  by  saving  of  ex- 
pense in  construction. 

Fortunately,  the  very  great  complexity  and  elabora- 
tion of  pipes  which  was  formerly  thought  essential  has 
given  place  to  much  greater  simplicity,  and  thoroughness 
of  construction  is  now  far  better  understood.  It  may 
still  seem  to  the  housekeeper  that  the  system  is  a  thing 
of  mystery,  but  for  the  encouragement  of  the  reader  it 
may  be  likened  to  a  tangled  skein  in  which,  after  the  first 
few  knots  are  disentangled,  the  rest  of  the  difficulties 
vanish  of  themselves.  Defects  in  plumbing,  while  not 
likely  to  give  rise  to  specific  disease,  may  cause  annoyance 
and  discomfort.  In  many  instances  these  can  be  averted, 
without  expense  or  even  technical  skill,  by  intelligent  over- 
sight and  a  knowledge  of  what  defects  to  look  for,  how 
to  find  them,  and  how  to  remedy  them. 

When  an  expert  is  really  needed,  a  little  knowledge 
enables  one  to  recognize  the  fact  in  season  to  save  the 
heavy  penalty  of  discomfort  or  expense  which  delay  often 
involves.  In  no  department  of  household  economy  are  the 
old  adages  about  the  ounce  of  prevention  and  the  stitch 
in  time  more  applicable.  The  questions  aim  to  save  the 
pound  of  cure  and  avert  the  nine  stitches.  They  do  not 
aim  to  supplant  the  mechanic  or  engineer,  or  to  supply 
the  place  of  a  scientific  treatise. 


28  HOUSE    SANITATION 

They  are  based  upon  the  principles  stated  by  Rogers 
Field  as  the  three  canons  of  house  drainage: 

1.  All  refuse  mattersjmust  be  completely  and  rapidly 
removed. 

2.  No  passage  of  air  can  be  allowed  to  take  place 
from  drain  or  waste  pipes  into  houses. 

3.  No  communication  can  be  permitted  to  occur  be- 
tween the  drains  and  the  water  supply. 

In  two  ways  these  questions  are  designed  to  be  espe- 
cially helpful. 

First.  To  enable  those  selecting  a  house  to  judge  of 
its  sanitary  condition.  It  cannot  be  too  strongly  urgecj,  in 
this  connection,  that  every  inch  of  pipe,  every  drain  and 
joint  and  trap,  must  have  been  seen  and  tested  by^the 
plumbing  inspector  of  the  Board  of  Health.  One  test 
should  be  made  when  the  house  is  in  process  of  construc- 
tion, before  any  of  the  plumbing  has  been  concealed,  and 
another  should  be  made  on  the  completion  of  the  house. 
If  all  is  satisfactory,  a  certificate  to  that  effect  should  be 
issued  by  the  inspector.  Inspection  by  a  competent  person 
should  follow  at  occasional  intervals  after  the  house  is 
occupied.  Inspection  which  insures  honest  workmanship 
and  good  materials  is  of  great  pecuniary  advantage,  since 
a  leakage  or  break  is  liable  not  to  be  discovered  until  it 
has  produced  serious  trouble,  and  then  there  is  often  delay 
in  having  repairs  made  and,  if  the  plumbing  is  concealed 
more  than  it  should  be,  the  partial  demolition  of  floors 
and  walls  is  often  necessary  to  get  at  the  root  of  the 
trouble. 

Second.  To  aid  those  in  charge  of  a  household  to 
maintain  healthful  conditions.  The  larger  the  staff  of 


PLUMBING  29 

servants  and  .n<?  wiore  complicated  the  drainage  system, 
the  more  necessary  is  intelligent  supervision.  When  the 
mistress  has  little  realization  of  the  importance  of  sanitary 
precautions,  it  is  scarcely  to  be  expected  that  even  the  most 
trusty  servants  will  display  greater  interest,  foresight,  and 
intelligence  in  the  daily  care  of  the  house.  The  two  most 
important  things  are  undoubtedly  to  start  right  in  the 
beginning  with  a  simple  and  efficient  drainage  system  of 
good  materials,  well  put  in,  and  to  keep  all  fixtures  in  good 
condition  by  proper  use  and  by  constant  watchful  atten- 
tion. The  importance  of  apparent  trifles  must  be  felt  and 
careful  regard  paid  to  them.  The  fixtures  should  not  re- 
ceive any  material  which  is  neither  soluble  in  water  nor 
easily  divided  into  small  particles  by  the  water.  News- 
paper in  closets,  matches,  withered  flowers,  rags,  hair,  etc., 
may  cause  stoppage  of  the  pipes.  Of  equal  importance  is^ 
the  smoothness  of  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  pipes,  since 
rough  surfaces  or  the  projections  which  are  apt  to  be  left 
when  joints  are  made  serve  as  a  lodging  place  for  solid 
matter  passing  through  the  pipes. 

The  following  brief  descriptions  may  be  of  help  to 
the  reader  who  is  not  familiar  with  plumbing,  and  it  will 
aid  in  the  most  intelligent  use  of  the  questions  if  some 
simple  descriptive  manual  be  read  in  connection  with 
them  to  serve  for  further  explanation  and  illustration. 

Fixtures  include  water-closets,  washbowls,  tubs,  sinks, 
etc. 

The  soil  pipe  conveys  the  contents  of  water-closets 
and  urinals  to  the  house  drain.  It  may  also  receive  the 
contents  of  waste  pipes.  -  The  waste  pipes  carry  other 
refuse  fluids,  as  of  tubs,  sinks,  washbowls,  etc.,  only. 


HOUSE    SANITATION 


These  pipes  may  discharge  either  into  the  soil  pipe  or 
directly  into  the  house  drain.  The  house  drain  is  the  pipe 
which  receives  the  contents  of  the  soil  and  waste  pipes 
and  conveys  them  outside  the  house.  It  is  nearly  hori- 
zontal, with  an  inclination  of  at  least  one  in  fifty,  while 
the  soil  pipe  should  be  vertical. 

A  trap  is  a  bend  in  a  pipe,  with  or  without  an  enlarge- 
ment, which  retains  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the   water 


FIG.  i 


FIG.  2 


that  passes  through  it  to  prevent  the  passage  of  foul  air 
back  through  the  pipe  and  into  the  room..  There  are 
many  kinds  of  traps.  The  S  trap  (Figure  i)  and  the 
bottle  trap  (Figure  2)  are  in  common  use. 

The  water  standing  in  the  trap  is  called  the  seal.  It 
is  effective  when  the  water  is  deep  enough  to  close  the 
pipe  entirely  and  thus  prevent  the  passage  of  air  from  the 
drainage  system  back  into  the  house.  If.it  stands  lower, 
space  is  left  above  the  water  for  the  passage  of  foul  air 
back  through  the  pipe,  and  the  sea}  is  "broken,"  as  in 
Figure  3. 

A  trap,  to  be  effective,  must  also  be  of  such  a  size 
and  shape  that  it  will  be  self -cleansing.  If  the  water  seal 


PLUMBING 


is  too  deep,  solid  matter  will  not  all  be  carried  out  of  the 
trap. 

A  seal  may  be  "broken"  or  "lost"  in  three  ways,  viz.: 
by  siphonage,  by  evaporation,  'and  by  capillary  attraction^ 
Siphonage  usually  occurs  under  the  following 
When   a   body   of   water   with   considerable 
is  discharged  into  a  pipe  (as  in  emptying  a  pail  of  slops 
or  flushing  a  water-closet)  it  drags  air  along  with  it,  and 


f        CLIL..L  CVV- d.V-/J.J.4\ 

conditions  :,\ 
momentum     V 

•1     ~£     „! V 


FIG.  3 


FIG.  4 


FIG.  5 


partially  exhausts  the  air  in  all  the  branch  pipes.  The 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  outside  the  pipe,  upon  the 
water  in  the  trap,  will  then  be  greater  than  that  from 
inside  the  pipe,  and  the  water  in  the  .trap  will  be  forced 
down  into  the  pipe,  until  the  water  seal  is  broken  and 

0 

space  left  for  the  passage  of  foul  air  up  into  the  room. 

A  pot  trap  is  one  like  Figure  2,  with  a  chamber  large 
enough  to  hold  a  deep  water  seal  which  cannot  be  easily 
broken.  A  small  pot  trap  will  not  resist  siphonage,  but 
a  large  one  will.  These  traps,  however,  r.etain  filth  and 
are  liable  to  clog.  (See  Figure  4.) 

The  vent  pipe  is  an  air  pipe  attached  to  the  highest 


32  HOUSE    SANITATION 

part  of  the  bend  in  the  trap,  on  the  sewer  side  of  the 
water  seal,  thus  affording  free  admission  of  air  to  the  in- 
side of  the  pipe,  to  balance  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
outside  and  preserve  the  water  seal  when  the  air  in  the 
branch  waste  pipes  has  been  swept  away  by  a  discharge 
of  water.  The  opening  sometimes  becomes  clogged,  as  in 
Figure  5. 

In  view  of  thi?  fact,  many  cities  have  adopted  a  com- 
plicated system  of  venting  and  reventing.  In  this  system 
no  trap  i^rented  at  the  crown,  as  in  Figure  5.  This  re- 
venting  system,  requiring  as  it  does  a  multitude  of  pipes, 
is  not  only  very  expensive  to  install,  but  the  multiplicity 
of  joints  in^rases  correspondingly  the  difficulty  of -keep- 
ing the  pipe^^bsolutely  tight,  unless  the  joints  are  per- 
fectly made,  which  is  very  expensive.  Under  all  these 
circumstances,  it  is  natural  that  an  attempt  should  have 
been  made  to  devise  a  non-siphonable,  self-cleansing  trap. 
The  S  trap  fulfills  the  latter  condition  and  the  drum  trap 
the  former.  The  Sanitas  trap  offers  a  combination  of  the 
two  and  seems  to  be  the  best  on  the  market  at  present. 
When  it  is  used,  the  venting  and  reventing  systems  need 
not  be  installed. 

Mechanical  traps  are  those  having,  in  addition  to  the 
water-seal,  some  mechanical  contrivance,  as  valve,  ball, 
flap,  etc.  They  are  liable,  from  their  complicated  con- 
struction, to  get  out  of  order ;  they  are  not  self-cleansing 
and  accumulate  deposits. 

In  view  of  these  objections,  it  is  generally  considered 
best  to  use  vent  pipes  with  water-closet  traps ;  and  bottle 
traps,  frequently  cleaned  out,  under  sinks,  basins,  and 
tubs. 


PLUMBING  33 

The  essentials  of  a  sanitary  closet  are  rapid  and  free 
flushing;  a  deep  water-seal;  avoidance  of  siphonage ; 
simplicity  of  construction ;  accessibility  for  cleansing  and 
inspection.  There  are  many  modern  fixtures  which  fill 
these  conditions. 

An  excellent  modern  wash-down  closet,  including 
flushing  rim,  siphon  jet,  simple  yet  solid  structure,  and 
ample  ^vater  seal,  is  described  on  page  492  of  Putnam's 
"Plumbing  and  Household  Sanitation,"  and  another 
one  on  page  167  of  Starbuck's  "Standard  Practical 
Plumbing."  A  list  of  the  old-style,  complicated  water- 
closets  would  include  pan  and  plunger  closets,  valve', 
anchor,  offset,  and  long  and  short  hoppers,.  All  but  tire, 
last  named  have  the  trap  below  the  floor,  It  is  impossible 
to  keep  them  clean,  and  they  are  prohibited  in  all  moderfl 
plumbing  codes.  The  multiplicity  of  joints  about  the  short 
hopper  makes  it  an  objectionable  fixture.  The  wash-out 
closet  is  prohibited  in  some  places,  but,  though  it  requires 
more  care  in  keeping  it  clean,  it  is  much  liked  by  nurses 
and  physicians. 

The  question  of  the  disposal  of  sewage  outside  the 
immediate  premises  is  beyond  the  control  of  the  individual 
in  the  city.  The  disposal  of  sewage  where  there  is  no 
water-carriage  system  will  be  touched  upon  in  a  later 
chapter,  but  any  elaboration  of  the  practical  application 
of  the  methods  suggested  should  be  sought  in  some 
treatise  devoted  to  the  subject. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  quote  from  Mr.  J.  Pickering 
Putnam  ten  general  principles  of  universal  application 
which  might  be  called  The  Ten  Rules  of  Sanitary 
Drainage : 


TRAP 


This  figure  shows  types  of  plumbing,  which  in  some  places  are 
\  still  required  by  law,  but  which  should  be  superseded  by  more  simple 
\and  less  expensive  devices. 


PLUMBING  35 

1.  Simplicity. 

2.  Accessibility. 

3.  Soundness  of  material. 

4.  Tightness  of  joints. 

5.  Ventilation. 

6.  Thorough  flushing. 

7.  Avoidance  of  mechanical  contrivances. 

8.  Automatic  operation. 

9.  Economy  of  water. 
10.  Noiselessness. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Have  you  a  plan  of  the  system  of  pipes  in  your 
house?    (See   W.    P.    Gerhard's   diagram   on   preceding 
page.) 

2.  Is  all  the  plumbing  work  exposed  to  view  or  easily 
accessible  ? 

3.  Are  the  fixtures  on  the  different  floors  placed  over 
each  other,  so  as  to  avoid  horizontal  soil  and  waste  pipes  ? 

4.  Are  all  the  pipes  air-tight,  as  shown  by  the  pepper- 
mint or  other  reliable  test? 

N&tc. — Pour  two  ounces  of  oil  of  peppermint  into  the 
soil  pipe  at  its  mouth  above  the  roof,  if  it  is  accessible, 
or  into  the  basin  or^  water-closet  nearest  the  roof,  first 
closing  the  vent  pipe^  which  appear  above  the  roof.  Pour 
in,  immediately  after,  a  pailful  of  hot  water;  if  the- odor 
of  peppermint  is  perceived  at  any  lower  fixture,  it  is  an 
indication  that  there  is  an  opening  in  some  pipe  through 
which  foul  air  may  escape,  The  peppermint  should  be 
kept  outside  the  "house  uftrll  needed,  and  the  person  who 
pours  it  iffsBould  remain  on  the  roof,  or  in  the  room  with 


36  HOUSE    SANITATION 

closed  doors,  until  the  examination  of  the  fixtures  below 
has  been  made  by  assistants ;  otherwise,  the  odor  will  come 
from  the  bottle  or  the  clothing  of  the  person  and  spoil  the 
test.  Oil  of  peppermint  is  sold  for  the  purpose  in  two- 
ounce  vials,  hermetically  sealed. 

5.  Is  the  house  drain  carried  in  full  sight  along  the 
face   of   the   cellar   wall   or   suspended    from   the  cellar 
ceiling? 

Note. — If  there  are  fixtures  necessitating  the  laying 
of  the  pipe  at  a  lower  level  than  the  cellar,  the  drain 
should  be  laid  in  a, mason- work  trench  (or  on  special 
foundations,  in  filled-in  land),  under  the  cellar  floor,  with 
movable  covers,  that  leakage  in  the  joints  of  this  impor- 
tant pipe  may  be  surely  and  quickly  detected. 

6.  Is  the   drain  protected   from  the   settling  of  the 
cellar  walls  by  an  opening,  arched  or  crossed  with  a  long 
stone,  where  it  passes  through  them  ? 

7.  Is  the  continuation  of  the  house  drain  outside  the 
house  to  the  sewer  or  cesspool  properly  laid,  *.  e.i 

(a)  Are  the  pipes  of  small  size,  not  more  than  five 
inches  in  diameter,  in  order  that  they  may  be  thoroughly 
scoured  by  the  rush  of  water? 

(b)  Are  they  laid  with  a  continuous  grade  of  at  least 
one  in  fifty? 

(c)  Have  they  tight  joints ? 

8.  If  this  outside  drain  is  in  made  ground,  or  quick- 
sand, or  near  trees,  or  a  well  used  for  drinking,  is  it  made 
of  iron?    If  otherwise,,  if  not  of  iron,  is  it  of  earthenware, 
with  cemented  joints? 

9.  Is   the   house   drain   connected   directly   with   the 
sewer  without  any  intervening  trap  2 


PLUMBING  ^ 

Note. — Such  a  trap  retards  the  removal  o4  waste 
matter  and  double-traps  all  the  fixtures,  which  may  cause 
trouble  in  case  the  vent  to  this  trap  is  stopped.  In  the 
absence  of  this  trap,  better  circulation  of  air  through 
the  sewer  is  secured.  « 

10.  Is  the  soil  pipe : 

(a)  As  small  as  four  inches  in  diameter? 

(b)  Carried  in  a  straight  line  at  leaslytwo,  feet  above 
the   roof    for  ventilation,   with   its   opening   away    from 
windows,  chimney  flues,  and  fresh-air  ventilators? 

(c)  Is  this  extension^) f  pipe  at  least  four  inches  in 
diameter,  so  thatlts  mouth  may  not  be  closed  by  frost  ? 

(d)  Made  of  cast  iron  with  calked  lead  joints,  and 
coated  inside  and  outside  with  asphalt  or  some  equivalent 
substance  ? 

11.  Do  the  branch  waste  pipes  connect  by  a  Y  branch 
and  one-eighth  inch  bend  with  the  soil  pipe? 

Note. — A  Y  branch  is  so  named  from  its  shape. 

12.  Has  each  water-closet,  washbowl,  bathtub,  sink, 
set    of    laundry    tubs,    etc.,    a    separate    trap,    and    one 
only? 

Note. — If  a  fixture  has  two  traps,  or  if  there  are  two 
traps  on  the  same  length  of  pipe,  the  air  between  them 
may  be  so  compressed  that  it  will  force  its  way  through 
the  trap  having  the  shallower  water-seal.  This  is  the  cause 
of  the  irregular  gurgling  sound  sometimes  heard.  It  may 
be  remedied  by  removing  one  trap,  or  by  connecting  the 
crown  of  one  of  the  traps  with  a  vent  pipe,  as  is  now 
usually  done  with  all  traps. 

13.  Does  each  water-closet  have  a  sufficient  supply  of 
water,  discharged  with  enough  force  when  emptied,  com- 


30  HOUSE    SANITATION 

pletely  to  scour  the  traps  and  branch  waste  pipes,  i.  e., 
four  gallons  to  each  closet  at  each  flushing  ? 

14.  Are  the  water-closets  flushed  with  water  from  a 
special  cistern  used  for  that  purpose  alone  and  frequently 
scrubbed  with  strong  soap  and  water  ? 

15.  Are  all  objects  excluded  from  the  fixtures  which 
are  likely  to  obstruct  the  pipes  or  empty  the  trap  by  capil- 
lary attraction,  such  as  hair,  strings,  rags,  china,  glass,  or 
anything  not  quickly  and  easily  dissolved? 


FIG.  7 

Note. — See  Figure  7. 

1 6.  When  a  fixture  is  not  to  be  used  for  some  time,  is 
the  evaporation  of  water  in  its  trap,  which  would  destroy 
the  seal  and  admit  foul  air  to  the  house,  prevented  by 
pouring  down  oil,  so  as  to  cover  the  water  in  the  trap, 
or  is  the  water  replaced  by  glycerine  ? 

17.  Are  the  fixtures  as  free  from  woodwork  in  the 
form  of  casings,  etc.,  as  possible? 

1 8.  If  not,   can  the  woodwork  concealing  them  be 
easily   removed,   and   is   it   frequently   removed   for  the 
examination  and  cleaning  of  the  fixtures? 


PLUMBING  39 

19.  Are  concealed  overflow  pipes  avoided,  and  stand- 
ing overflow  pipes  or  some  substitute  used?    If  the  over- 
flow pipes  (a)  are  concealed,  are  they  frequently  flushed 
with  clean  water?    Do  they  connect  with  the  waste  pipe 
between  the  bowl  and  trap  (b)  ? 

20.  If  the  vent  pipe  is  used,  is  it  (a)  either  extended 
through  to  the  roof  and  two  feet  above  it,  entirely  sepa- 
rate from  any  chimney  flue,  or  branched  into  a  soil  pipe 
above  the  inlet  from  the  highest  fixture  ? 

(b)  Is  it  either  vertical  or  continuously  sloping,  to 
avoid  collection  of  water  by  condensation? 

(c)  Is  the  main  vent  pipe  at  least  three  inches,  and  the 
branch  vent  pipe  two  inches,  in  diameter  ? 

21.  Are  slop-hoppers  thoroughly  flushed  after  each 
use? 

22.  Is  their  outlet  provided  with  a  strainer  ? 

23.  If  a  grease  trap  is  provided  for  the  kitchen  sink, 
is  it  frequently  cleaned  and  inspected? 

Note. — Grease  carried  from  the  kitchen  sink  by  hot 
water  soon  becomes  cold  and  adheres  to  the  sides  of  the 
pipe  and  trap  unless  the  drain  has  a  very  good  pitch.  A 
special  trap  placed  near  the  sink  to  intercept  the  grease 
before  it  congeals  is  called  a  grease  trap.  If  there  is  no 
grease  trap,  the  sink  should  be  frequently  washed  out 
with  a  hot  solution  of  washing  soda  or  potash.  This  is 
more  effective  if  done  at  night  after  all  other  work  is 
finished. 

24.  Is  the  space  under  the  kitchen  sink  free  to  light 
and  ventilation,  and  accessible  for  frequent  cleansing? 

25.  Are  all  articles  excluded  from  the  sinkpipe  which 
are  likely  to  obstruct  it?    (Question  15.) 


4O  HOUSE    SANITATION 

26.  Is  the  refrigerator  waste  pipe  free  from  direct 
connection  with  the  soil  pipe  or  drain? 

27.  Is  it  discharged  by  a  pipe  opening  above  a  sink 
in  the  basement,  or  emptied  on  the  ground  in  such  a  way 
that  it  drains  off  quickly  ? 

28.  If  the  sink  is  used,  is  the  waste  pipe  from  this 
sink  effectively  trapped  before  entering  the  drain? 

29.  Are  the  waste  pipes  which  lead  from  the  sheet- 
lead  safes  provided  under  basins,  tubs,  water-closets,  etc., 
to  prevent  flooding  of  floors  and  ceilings,  not  directly 
connected  with  the  soil  pipe  or  drain,  but  discharged  into 
an  open  sink  in  the  cellar,  or  over  water-closet  cisterns? 

30.  Are  the  overflow  pipes  of  all  cisterns  used  for 
drinking,  cooking,  or  washing  free  from  direct  connection 
with  the  soil  pipes  ? 

31.  Are  they  either  discharged  on  the  roof,  or  over 
an  open  sink,  etc.,  as  above  ? 

32.  Are  rain-water  leaders  used  for  that  purpose  only, 
and  never  as  soil,  waste,  or  ventilating  pipes  ? 

33.  If,  unhappily,  the  leader  does  discharge  into  the 
drain  and  its  top  opens  within  ten  feet  of  a  window,  is  it 
trapped  at  the  bottom,  just  before  entering  the  drain? 

Note. — When  the  contents  of  these  waste  pipes  (in 
Questions  26-33)  are  eventually  discharged  into  the 
drain,  they  are  of  great  assistance  in  flushing  the  pipe.- 
The  disconnection  by  trap  and  at  the  open  sink  reduces 
to  a  minimum  the  danger  of  back  passage  of  foul  air. 

When  these  wastes  are  discharged  directly  into  the 
soil,  they  are  liable  to  cause  standing  puddles,  to  gut 
lawns,  and  to  increase  the  dampness  about  the  house  and 
the  possibility  of  dampness  in  the  cellar. 


PLUMBING  41 

34.  Are  the  surfaces  of  all  fixtures  and  receptacles 
for  water  perfectly  smooth,  so  that  they  may  easily  be 
kept  clean? 

35.  After  sinks  and  bowls  have  been  used,  is  fresh 
water  turned  on  to  fill  the  traps  and  displace  the  dirty 
water  which  would  otherwise  stand  in  them  ? 

36.  Have  you  enough  fixtures  and  are  they  placed 
conveniently  enough  to  make  it  easy  to  secure  a  high 
degree  of  cleanliness  for  your  household? 


CHAPTER  V 
AIR  AND  VENTILATION 

'"TpVHE  necessity  for  wholesome  air  in  our  homes  can- 
•*•  not  be  too  strongly  urged,  and  its  importance 
should  secure  for  it  the  careful  daily  attention  of  every 
housekeeper.  She  will  find  it  difficult,  at  best,  to  keep 
off  illness  from  her  family;  but  much  may  be  done  by 
good  ventilation  toward  keeping  each  member  of  the 
household  strong,  active,  and  happy. 

The  supplying  of  such  air  in  a  cold  climate  undoubt- 
edly entails  expense,  for  a  great  deal  of  fuel  is  needed 
to  prepare  outside  air  for  our  use ;  but,  in*  estimating  the 
actual  cost,  several  points  should  be  considered.  Not  only 
must  the  bills  for  coal  and  wood  be  compared  with  the 
bills  for  doctors  and  nurses,  but  account  must  be  taken 
of  the  increase  in  headache,  listlessness,  laziness,  irrita- 
bility, and  nervousness  which  follow  as  a  consequence  of 
breathing  unfit  air. 

When,  however,  the  housekeeper  comes  to  inquire 
what  is  meant  by  good  ventilation,  she  meets  with 
difficulties.  She  finds  almost  hopeless  confusion  in  the 
reference  books  she  consults,  and  the  results  of  expert 
engineering  skill  in  ventilating  public  buildings,  such  as 
theaters  and  schools,  which  she  visits  are  most  unsatis- 
factory. What  is  she  to  do  then  practically  in  order  to 
secure  those  conditions  for  her  family  upon  which  she 
is  told  their  welfare  so  greatly  depends  ? 

42 


AIR    AND   VENTILATION  43 

In  the  first  place,  she  must  know  that  carbon  dioxide, 
popularly  known  as  carbonic  acid,  whose  presence  in  the 
air  was  long  taken  as  an  index  of  its  impurity  and  which 
is  still  recognized  in  many  legal  enactments  as  determin- 
ing the  fitness  of  air  for  breathing,  as  well  as  defining 
"overcrowding/'  is  no  longer  considered  harmful  in  the 
amounts  found  even  in  air  which  causes  great  discom- 
fort. Its  presence  in  the  proportion  of  six  parts  in  ten 
thousand  of  the  air  of  a  room  has  been  fixed  upon 
theoretically  as  the  proper  maximum  limit.  In  order  to 
keep  the  amount  as  low  as  this,  when  its  source  is  air 
from  human  lungs,  an  average  of  three  thousand  cubic 
feet  of  fresh  air  an  hour  has  to  be  supplied  for  each 
person.  It  was  discovered,  however,  some  years  ago, 
and  has  been  many  times  verified  since,  that,  if  other 
conditions  are  right,  no  discomfort  is  felt  even  if  the 
proportion  goes  up  to  over  two  hundred  parts,  and  peo- 
ple have  worked  mentally  and  physically  for  more  than 
twelve  days  with  only  twro  hundred  and  twelve  feet  of  air 
ah  hour  and  have  felt  no  discomfort. 

In  fact,  Lehmann's  experiments  show  that  in  well- 
ventilated  rooms  a  person  sitting  or  standing  quietly 
inhales  air  with  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  parts  of  carbon 
dioxide  (or  four  to  six  and^ one-half  per  cent  of  the  air 
which  has  just  been  exhaled)  ; -and  in  rooms  in  which 
the  air  is  not  very  impure,  up  to  sixty  or  even  seventy 
parts.  Thus  it  not  infrequently  happens  that  the  air 
immediately  surrounding  the  head  of  a  person  contains 
a  much  larger  proportion  of  carbon  dioxide  than  the  air 
as  a  whole.  In  other  words,  the  actual  breathing  zone  is 
quite  different  from  the  general  air. 


44  HOUSE    SANITATION 

When  these  facts  about  carbon  dioxide  were  first 
learned,  it  was  thought  that  it  might  still  be  an  index 
of  the  condition  of  the  air  for  breathing,  even  though  it 
might  not  in  itself  be  significant.  But  it  was  soon  seen 
that  other  impurities  and  changes  in  physical  properties 
of  the  air  bear  no  fixed  relation  to  carbon  dioxide.  It  is 
not  always  accompanied  with  poisonous  gases,  such  as 
carbon  monoxide,  with  an  excessive  amount  of  moisture, 
a  high  degree  of  heat,  or  harmful  dusts. 

These  theories  having  failed  to  explain  the  facts  about 
"impure"  air,  it  was  suggested  that  a  volatile,  organic 
poison  is  given  off  with  the  breath  from  the  lungs. 
Assiduous  efforts  to  detect  and  measure  this  substance 
have  failed,  although  recently  its  detection  has  been 
claimed  by  the  use  of  a  reaction  known  as  anaphylaxis. 
Further  research  is  needed  in  order  to  prove  this  theory, 
although  it  appears  to  be  a  possibility. 

The  significant  discovery  was  made  that  in  the  ex- 
periments where  the  carbon  dioxide  went  up  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  and  more  parts  no  discomfort  was  felt 
unless  the  humidity  was  increased.  If  the  air  contained 
half  as  much  moisture  as  it  could  contain,  or  had  a  rela- 
tive humidity  of  fifty  per  cent,  "the  discomfort  did  not 
begin  until  the  temperature  reached  26°  C.  (79°  F.), 
whereas  if  the  humidity  was  seventy-five  to  eighty  per 
cent  the  discomfort  was  invariably  noticed  at  24°  C. 
(75°  F.)."  The  temperature  of  the  skin  rose  and  there 
was  an  increase  in  humidity  on  the  covered  portions 
of  the  body,  in  addition  to  disagreeable  subjective  sensa- 
tions. Moreover,  if  the  body  was  inclosed  in  the  experi- 
mental chamber  at  a  relatively  high  temperature  and 


AIR   AND   VENTILATION  45 

humidity,  the  sensations  .were  disagreeable  even  if  pure 
air  from  outside  was  inhaled,  while  if  the  subject  was 
placed  outside  and  inhaled  air  which  had  been  made 
impure  by  another  person,  there  was  no  disagreeable 
effect. 

In  other  words,  it  seems  to  be  definitely  proved  that 
chemical  contamination  of  air  by  the  body  does  not  affect 

i 

the  comfort  of  people,  whereas  moisture  and  temperature 
do.  Physically  and  mentally,  the  subjects  were  appar- 
ently uninfluenced  by  the  long  sojourn  of  two  weeks  or 
more  in  vitiated  air. 

A  man  leading  an  active  life  produces  heat  enough 
in  one  day  to  raise  six  hundred  pounds  of  water  from 
freezing  to  boiling.  If  he  is  less  active,  a  proportionally 
smaller  amount  of  heat  is  produced.  The  body,  however, 
must  be  kept  at  a  practically  constant  temperature  and  all 
the  other  functions  of  the  body  are  subordinated  to  this 
— digestion,  mental  work,  and  so  on.  This  heat  is  lost 
by  heat  transfer  or  radiation,  conduction,  and  convection, 
and  by  the  evaporation  of  water  from  the  skin,  or  per- 
spiration. If  the  body  produces  a  great  deal  of  heat  and 
the  humidity  of  the  surroundfng  air  is  high,  and  if  the 
perspiration  cannot  evaporate  and  thus  regulate  the  heat 
of  the  body,  the  blood  then  rushes  to  the  skin  from  the 
different  organs,  so  as  to  increase  the  means  of  losing 
heat.  In  consequence,  the  other  functions  of  the  body  are 
impaired,  mental  work  becomes  difficult,  one  feels  drowsy, 
and  the  conditions  prevail  which  we  recognize  as  the 
same  on  a  warm,  muggy  day  or  in  a  crowded,  ill-venti- 
lated room. 

Humidity  acts  in  two  ways,  viz.,  cooling  and  heating. 


46  HOUSE    SANITATION 

First,  high  humidity  with  a  temperature  below  70°  F.,  as 
on  a  cold,  damp  day,  increases  the  conductivity  of  the 
air;  the  body  loses  its  heat  rapidly  and  feels  chilled. 
Second,  high  humidity  with  a  temperature  above  70°  F., 
as  on  a  warm,  sultry  day,  interferes  with  the  evaporation 
of  perspiration,  which  would  otherwise  help  cool  the  body, 
and  the  effect  is  that  of  heating.  Dr.  C.-E.  A.  Winslow's 
experiments  show  that  a  temperature  of  80°  F.  with 
moderate  humidity,  or  70°  F.  with  high  humidity  (over 
70  relative  humidity),  produces  depression,  headache,  and  fr 
dizziness,  and  that  at  78°  F.  fever  often  sets  in. 

Between  68°  and  70°  there  is  a  so-called  neutral  zone, 
where  high  humidity  makes  little  difference  and  conse- 
quently may  be  ignored.  But  a  very  slight  increase  in  the 
temperature  makes  the  humidity  evident,  and  the  discom- 
fort is  wholly  independent  of  the  quality  of  the  air  that 
is  introduced. 

The  amount  of  moisture  in  the  air  may  have  effects 
of  a  different  kind.  The  capacity  of  air  to  hold  moisture 
increases  with  its  temperature.  Air  which  is  heated  has 
therefore  a  low  relative  humidity  and  seems  dry.  It 
tends  to  take  up  water,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  way  in 
which  furniture  often  warps  in  rooms  heated  by  steam. 
It  even  draws  water  from  the  tissues  of  the  body  to  an 
undue  extent,  and  thus  makes  the  body  less  resistant  to 
unfavorable  conditions.  The  sudden  transition  from  the 
dry,  highly  heated  air  of  city  houses  to  damp,  cold,  out- 
of-door  air  involves  a  difficult  adjustment  for  the  body, 
and  it  is  probably  true  that  one  reason  why  living  in 
rooms  with  open  windows  is  so  beneficial  is  that  it  lessens 
the  amount  of  this  strain. 


AIR    AND    VENTILATION  47 

One  factor  in  badly  ventilated  rooms  which  seems  a 
source  of  harm  is  the  odors  from  the  bodies  and  clothing 
of  people,  but  such  odors  are  not  believed  by  scientific 
authorities  to  cause  directly  harmful  effects  on  health. 
When  odors  are  noticed — and  they  often  exist  without 
being  noticed — and  are  unpleasant,  they  frequently  cause 
psychical  disturbances  and  should  be  eliminated.  It  i^» 
more  proper  to  say  that  their  causes  should  be  removed, 
for  their  presence  should  always  be  taken  to  mean  that 
processes  are  going  on  which  should  not  be  tolerated. 
The  removal  of  their  causes  means  more  complete  clean- 
liness, and  this  is  more  effective  than  so  clumsy  a  con- 
trivance as  moving  large  volumes  of  air  or  removing 
odors  by  ventilation.  It  should  be  remembered  that  odors 
are  always  more  offensive  when  the  air  is  hot  and  humid. 

A  book  on  air,  which  was  for  a  long  time  a  stan^^jj 
authority,  cites  among  the  ways  by  which  air  may  be 
defiled  "putrefactive  processes,  sewage  emanations,  and 
excremental  filth,"  and  "poison^of  unknown  nature 
evolved  by  damp  and  filthy  soil."  It  is  not  now  believed 
that  disease  can  be  caused  by  air  defiled  in  any  of  these 
ways.  On  the  other  hand,  the  proof  is  conclusive  that 
malaria,  the  disease  which  is  often  attributed  to  marsh 
air,  is  caused  by  means  of  infection  through  a  special 
kind  of  mosquito,  and  typhoid  fever,  so  closely  associated 
with  "sewage  emanations,"  is  due  to  infected  food  or 
contact  infection.  Night  air,  which  is  often  thought  im-* 
pure,  is  in  reality  purer  than  day  air.  It  contains  fewer 
germs,  because  usually  there  is  less  wind  to  blow  them 
up  from  the  surface  of  the  ground;  and,  as  there  are 
fewer  fires  in  use  at  night,  there  are  fewer  products  of 


- 
48  HOUSE    SANITATION 

combustion  in  the  air.  The  notion  that  it  was  dangerous 
came  from  its  connection  with  malaria..  If  windows  were 
kept  tightly  shut  and  the  night  air  was  thus  prevented 
from  getting  in,  people  suffered  less  from  malaria.  The 
explanation  is  now  known  to  be  that  the  infection-bearing 
mosquitoes,  flying  at  night,  were  kept  out,  and  the  same 
is  true  of  the  freedom  from  malaria  which  comes  from 
not  staying  out  of  doors  after  sundown,  as  was  thought 
necessary  in  Italy  before  the  marshes  were  drained  and 
the  mosquitoes  exterminated. 

It  must  not  be  thought  that  in  this  discussion  the 
significance  of  the  presence  of  a  really  poisonous  gas,  like 
carbon  monoxide  or  those  gases  which  come,  for  ex- 
ample, from  burning  dust  on  surfaces  of  hot  radiators, 
or  of  pathogenic  germs  and  irritating  dusts  is  overlooked, 
he  remedy,  as  with  odors,  is  to  prevent  their  getting 
into  the  air  rather  than  to  attempt  to  remove  them  by  the 
costly  and  often  ineffective  method  of  moving  ^the  air 
which  contains  them.j^This  is  a^saie^conclusion  to  reach, 
even  if  one  is  reluctant  to  accept  the  opinions  which  are 
rapidly  gaining  ground  that  very  few  diseases  are  air- 
borne and  that  the  germs  come  from  contact  with  persons 
rather  than  from  the  environment. 

Under  the  influence  both  of  experience  and  of  physi- 
ological experimentation,  there  is  a  growing  belief  in  the 
wholesomeness  of  open-air  treatment  for  sick  people  and 
of  open-air  life  for  well  people.  The  results  obtained, 
however,  are  not  due  to  the  greater  purity  of  the  air,  fo$ 
it  is  indeed  sometimes  less  pure,  as  when  dust  is  blown 
by  the  wind;  or  to  greater  pressure  of  oxygen,  for  in 
many  health  resorts  in  high  altitudes  it  is  less  than 


AIR    AND    VENTILATION  49 

normal;  but  to  the  movement,  coolness,  and  relative 
humidity  of  the  air.  Fliigge^the  German  scientist,  urges 
that  the  real  reasons  for  life  in  the  open  should  be  under- 
stpod.  It  is  not  that  the  chemical  condition  of  inside  air 
•is  harmful,  but  that  the  -overheating  of  rooms  causes 
disturbances  of  health.  One  should  go  into  the  open,  not 
because  one  may  breathe  there  ^chemically  purer  air, 
but  because  its  almost  constant  motion  carries  away 
the  body  heat  and  causes  a  beneficial  stimulation  of  the 
skin  and  brings  about  a  heightened  cell  activity  that  aids 
in  the  development  of  sturdy  health.  It  is  confinement  in 
overheated,  stagnant  air,  which  pervades  the  buildings  * 
in  which  people  live  and  work,  that  is  responsible  for 
their  depressed  mental  and  physical  vigor.  •» 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that  the  human  body 
has  great  power  of  adaptation  to  heat  and  cold,  and  by 
practice  can  improve  this  power  and  by  disuse  can  lose 
it  in  large  part.  It  is  therefore  a  mistake  to  attempt  to 
avoid  the  danger  of  " colds"  by  living  in  an  even  tem- 
perature. The  result  is  harmful  rather  than  beneficial, 
except,  of  course,  in  the  case  of  sick  or  feeble  persons 
who  need  special  treatment. 

In  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  ventilation  of  sleeping- 
cars,  Dr.  T.  R.  Crowder  comes  to  certain  conclusions 
which  seem  applicable  likewise  to  buildings.  He  says  :• 
"  Overheating  is  the  paramount  evil.  It  is  the  thing  to  be 
chiefly  guarded  against  in  the  attempt  to  maintain  com- 
fort and  good  hygiene.  It  is  not  feasible  to  cool  the 
natufally  overheated  air  in  summer  or  to  dry~it  when 
excessively  humid.  Fan  motors  and  open  windows  are 
the  available  means  by  which  the  difficulties  arising  in 


5<D  HOUSE    SANITATION 

hot  weather  may  be  most  readily  overcome.  Carry  away 
the  body  heat  as  rapidly  as  possible  by  a  strong  current 
of  air."  The  same  conclusions  may  be  drawn  with 
reference  to  crowded  rooms,  where  the  body  heat  from 
the  people  is  sufficient  to  raise  the  air  to  a  summer 
temperature. 

In  seeking  means  of  establishing  movement  of  air,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  a  surprisingly  large  amount 
of  air  is  admitted  through  the  walls  of  the  house  and 
around  the  windows  and  doors.  This  so-called  "sponta- 
neous ventilation"  is  dependent  xupon  the  difference  in 
temperature  between  outdoor  and  indeof  air,  and  may 
therefore  be  depended  upon  to^-grealefllegree  in  winter, 
when  the  opening  of  windows  or  the  admission  of  large 
volumes  of  air  through  big  openings  is  apit  to  cause  dis- 
comfort through  the  excessive  cold.  The  rate  of  spon- 
taneous ventilation  is  also  affected  by  the  character  of 
the  wall  surface.  Experiments  have  shown  that  in  a  room 
containing  about  two  thousand  cubic  feet,  with  masonry 
walls  covered  with  wall  paper,  2.5  per  cent  of  the  air  is 
changed  in  every  hour  for  every  degree  centigrade  differ- 
ence in  temperature.  The  whole  air  would  be  changed  in 
less  than  two  hours  if  the  temperature  outside  were  freez- 
ing and  indoors  70°  F.  If  the  walls  are  covered  with  oil 
paint,  the  exchange  will  take  place  in  less  than  three 
hours,  and  if  whitewashed  or  calsomined,  in  less  than  one 
hour.  The  larger  the  room  the  smaller  are  its  walls,  floor, 
and  roof  in  proportion  to  its  contained  air;  hence  this 
kind  of  ventilation  is  not  as  efficient  in  large  as  in  small 
rooms  or  buildings. 

Recent  investigations  seem  to  show  that  the  "smoke 

\ 


AIR   AND   VENTILATION  51 

nuisance,"  while  still  retaining  its  title,  is  not  the  source 
of  danger  it  was  formerly  thought  to  be.  The  gaseous 
pollution  of  the  air,  negligible  except  where  the  air  is 
constantly  stagnant,  and  the  soot  which,  except  close  to 
the  chimney,  is  an  impalpable  powder,  is  objectionable 
in  that,  first,  it  darkens  the  atmosphere  and  thus  depresses 
the  spirits ;  and,  second,  it  blackens  and  inj  ures  household 
furnishings,  and  thus  forms  an  unnecessary  cause  of  ex- 
pense and  labor.  Cinders  and  large  particles  of  uncon- 
sumed  coal  from  badly  managed  fires  are  objectionable. 
In  the  light  of  all  these  facts,  what  measures  can 
the  housekeeper  take  to  promote  the  well-being  of  her 
household?  What  conclusions  can  she  draw  from  the 
evidences  that  the  bad  effects  of  overcrowded  rooms  are 
due,  not  to  diminished  oxygen,  not  to  any  toxin  dis- 
charged from  the  body,  but  to  the  absence  of  free  venti- 
lation, or  movement  of  the  air,  and  to  the  warm  and 
humid  atmosphere  in  such  places?  What  measures  can 
she  adopt  to  secure,  not  only  conditions  of  health  and 
vigor,  but  of  comfort  for  her  family?  The  following 
principles  will  guide  her: 

1.  She  must  keep  the  air  of  her  house  as   free  as 
possible  from  harmful  and  offensive  gases.    This  means 
that  the  house  must  not  be  in  the  neighborhood  of 

(a)  Leaking  gas  mains. 

(b)  Objectionable  factories. 

(c)  Defective  drains. 

2.  She  must  exclude  the  germs  of  infectious  diseases 
and  irritating  dusts.    This  means  that 

(a)   She   must   not   allow   particles    from   any   body 
wastes  to  get  into  the  air  which  is  to  be  breathed. 


52  HOUSE    SANITATION 

(b)  Her  house  must  be  on  a  clean,  well-paved  street, 
open  to  sunlight  and  with  yards  kept  free  from  rubbish 
and  dust. 

(c)  There  should  be  no  near-by  chimneys  smoking 
unduly. 

(d)  The  cleansing  processes  in  the/ house  should  be 
conducted  so  as  to  keep  the  air  dust-fre£. 

3.  Her  house  must  be  so  constructed  that  air  can  be 
made  to  move  through  it  by  means  of 

(a)  Location  where  the  air  is  in  constant  motion,  or 
at  least  very  seldom  stagnant. 

(&)*  Spontaneous  ventilation  or,  if  the  house  is  built 
very  tightly,  inlet' and  outlet  flues. 

(c)  Windows  open  as  freely,  both  night  and  day,  as 
is  consistent  with  comfort. 

(d)  Electric  fans  to  be  used  when  natural  means  of 
moving  air  are  inadequate. 

4.  The  humidity  and  temperature  of  the  air  must  be 
kept  favorable.    This  means  that 

(a)  The    temperature    of    artificially    heated    rooms 
should  not  go  above  70°  F. 

(b)  In   rooms  occupied  by  one  or  two  people  and 
artificially    heated,    provision    should   be    madV^for   the 
evaporation  of  water. 

(c)  In  rooms  occupied  by  a  large  number  of  people, 
i  no  added  humidity  is  necessary;  the  temperature  of  the 

room  itself  should  not  be  above  64°  F.,  and  special  means 
should  be  provided  by  electric  fans  or  otherwise  for 
moving  the  hot,  moist  air  which  tends  to  accumulate 
about  the  bodies  of  the  occupants. 

5.  No    offensive    odors    should   be   tolerated.    Their 
cause  should  be  removed. 


AIR  AND  VENTILATION  53 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Is  there  a  constant  supply  of  fresh  air  in  every 
part  of  the  house  ? 

2.  Are  you  sure  that  the  construction  of  the  house 
is  such  that  there  may  be  a  movement  of  air  in  all  living 
rooms  and  sleeping  rooms  when  they  are  occupied  ? 

Note. — Spontaneous  ventilation  may  be  aided  by  tran- 
soms, fireplaces,  flues,  windows,  and  other  outlets  for  air. 

3.  Are  the  windows  and  doors  so  placed  that  there 
may  be  a  specially  rapid  movement  of  air  when  it  is 
needed  ? 

4.  Is  an  outlet  for  impure  and  overheated  air,  as  well 
as  an  inlet  for  fresh  air,  provided  in  the  different  rooms  ? 

Note. — An  outlet,  in  the  shape  of  a  box,  between  the 
ceiling  and  the  floor  above,  extending  from  the  chimney 
to  the  chandelier  or  lighting  fixtures,  with  apertures  over 
the  latter,  is  an  effective  outlet  for  the  heat  from  the 
illumination. 

5.  Are  the  inlets  and  outlets  arranged  so  that  the 
people  in  the  room  will  not  be  made  uncomfortable  by 
the  movement  of  air? 

6.  Are  electric  fans  used  when  needed  to  increase 
movement  of  air? 

7.  If  there  is  a  gas  grate,  has  it  a  flue  which  you 
can  make  use  of  for  ventilation  ? 

8.  Is  there  a  skylight  at  the  top  of  the  house,  so  placed 
with  regard  to  the  prevailing  winds  that  it  may  be  kept 
open  a  few  inches  most  of  the  time  as  an  outlet  for  im- 
pure air  without  causing  a  downward  draught  through 
the  house  ? 


54  HOUSE    SANITATION 

__2-    If  such  a  skylight  is  impracticable,  can  a  window 
in  th(Ttop  story  be  kept  slightly  open  most  of  the  time  ? 

10.  Are  the  outside  or  double  windows  made  with  two 
sashes  ojr  with  movable  panes,  so  as  to  permit  movement 
of  air  when  desired  ? 

11.  Are  all  windows  arranged  so  that  they  can  be 
lowered  easily  from  the  top  ? 

12.  If  there  is  a  water  tank,  is  the  air  of  the  room  in 
which  it  is  placed  kept  fresh  and  pure,  and  is  it  frequently 
cleaned  ? 

13.  Are  the  halls  supplied  with  plenty  of  pure,  warm 
air? 

Are  sleeping  rooms  kept  cooler  than  living  rooms  ? 


15.  When  a  sleeping  room  is  used  as  a  sewing  room 
or  sitting  room  during  the  day,  is  it  thoroughly  aired 
before  bedtime? 

1  6.  Do  you  open  your  chamber  windows  before  you 
go  to  bed? 

17.  Do  you  provide  for  the  ventilation  of  your  clothes 
closets  ? 

1  8.  At  night  is  a  piece  of  cheesecloth  hung  over  the 
opening  of  the  window,  a  board  inserted,  or  a  screen 
placed  before  the  bed  to  break  the  force  of  the  current 
of  air? 

Note.  —  The  piece  of  cloth  not  only  breaks  the  force 
of  the  air,  but  strains  out  the  coarser  particles  of  dust. 

19.  When  you  give  a  room  a  thorough  airing,   do 
you  see  that  it  is  at  once  warmed  again  enough  for  com- 
fort and  to  prevent  remonstrances  from  the  family? 

20.  When  there   is  a   great  difference   between  the 
temperature  indoors  and  out,  do  you  remember  that  a 


AIR   AND   VENTILATION  55 

great  deal  of  air  finds  its  way  in  through  the  walls  and 
around  the  windows,  and  that  the  window  need  not  be 
open  as  far  as  at  other  times  ? 

21.  In  ventilating  the  bathroom,  do  you  consider  the 
direction  of  air  currents,  in  order  to  insure  the  escape 
of  odors  out  of  doors  instead  of  into  other  parts  of  the 
house  ? 

22.  Is  there  a  thermometer  in  every  room  ? 

23.  Are  the  living  rooms  kept  at  a  temperature  not 
exceeding  70°  F.  ? 

24.  Do  you  make  sure  that  the  air  of  your  rooms  is 
neither  too  dry  nor  too  moist  for  comfort? 

25.  If  a  nursery,  schoolroom,  or  sitting  room  is  occu- 
pied a  large  part  of  the  day,  or  by  many  people  at  one 
time,  are  the   windows   occasionally  opened   for  a   few 
minutes  to  change  the  air,  at  a  time  when  the  family  are 
at  their  meals  or  occupied  elsewhere  ? 

26.  Does  the  member  of  the  family  who  is  the  last 
to  retire  thoroughly  air  the  room  where  the  family  have 
been  sitting  through  the  evening,  and  thus  remove  the 
impurities  and  odors  instead  of  having  them  escape  into 
the  rest  of  the  house  during  the  night  ? 

27.  Has  the  kitchen  adequate  arrangements  for  con- 
stant ventilation  and  occasional  airing? 

28.  Do  you  keep  a  window  lowered  a  little  from  the 
top? 

29.  Is  there  a  ventilating  flue  in  the  kitchen  chimney  ? 

30.  If  odors  from  cooking  are  especially  troublesome, 
can  a  hood  over  the  range  or  stove  be  connected  with  the 
flue,  or  are  kettles  used  which  have  special  provision  for 
carrying  away  the  odors  ? 


56  HOUSE    SANITATION 

31.  Are    there    windows    on   opposite    sides   of   the 
kitchen  for  quickly  changing  the  air? 

32.  Are   there  openings   on   different   outside   walls 
with  register  ventilators  which  may  be  closed  in  very  cold 
weather  ?    Are  these  protected  from  dust  by  cheesecloth  ? 

Note. — These  should  be  so  placed  that  no  draught  will 
be  felt  in  the  part  of  the  kitchen  most  in  use,  and  should 
be  as  near  the  ceiling  as  possible,  in  order  to  move  the 
upper  strata  of  hot  air,  which  usually  carry  odors  over 
the  whole  house. 


CHAPTER  VI 
HEATING 

IT  must  be  the  aim  of  the  housekeeper  to  provide  all 
parts  of  the  house  with  air  that  is  nyf,  only  fresh 
and  pure,  but  sufficiently  warm  for  health  and  comfort. 
These  results  are  secured,  not  by  having  hot  air  to  breathe, 
but  by  keeping  the  walls  and  floors  warm.  The  different 
rooms  and  halls  of  the  house  should  be  of  so  nearly  the 
same  temperature  that  no  chill  is  felt  in  passing  from  one 
to  another.  Equable  temperature  is  best  obtained  by 
gentle,  continuous  heat.  To  accomplish  this  in  extremely 
cold  weather,  it  may  be  necessary  to  furnish  heat  all 
night. 

In  Northern  climates,  the  question  of  heating  the  air 
is  an  important  one  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 
Many  kinds  of  apparatus  have  been  devised  which  are 
very  effective  in  furnishing  a  high  degree  of  warmth. 
In  consequence,  many  buildings  are  greatly  overheated; 
and  the  effects  on  the  health  are  more  serious  than  from 
cold.  If  the  heat  comes  from  hot  metal  in  the  room,  as 
is  the  case  with  steam  or  hot-water  radiators,  there  is  the 
added  drawback  that  the  air  becomes  too  dry  for  health 
The  housekeeper  needs,  therefore,  to  exercise  great  care 
to  keep  her  rooms  at  a  moderate  temperature,  preferably 
between  68°  and  70°,  except  when  more  heat  is  needed 
by  aged  persons,  and  to  provide  moisture  for  the  air, 
unless  the  rooms  are  to  be  occupied  by  a  good  many 

57 


58  HOUSE   SANITATION 

people.  In  that  case,  ample  moisture  will  be  given  off 
from  their  bodies.  She  should  remember  also  that  there 
is  quite  a  difference  in  temperature  between  the  air  near 
the  floor  and  that  higher  up — sometimes  as  much  as  15° 
— and  this  must  be  taken  account  of  when  babies  are  put 
on  the  floor.  Many  an  attack  of  "snuffles"  will  yield  to 
care  on  this  point. 

The  system  whereby  a  large  central  heating  plant  is 
established  and  steam  heat  is  furnished  to  different  houses 
is  increasing  in  popularity.  The  plan  has  been  tried  in 
several  cities  of  moderate  size  and  is  becoming  more  suc- 
cessful as  the  manufacturers  grow  more  expert  in  install- 
ing the  apparatus.  At  first  the  difficulty  was  to  find 
means  whereby  the  pipes  carrying  the  steam  could  be 
sufficiently  protected  from  loss  of  heat.  The  present 
method  is  to  apply  a  preparation  of  tarred  wood  pulp  to 
the  pipes  and  then  wrap  them  in  asbestos.  This  system 
minimizes  the  waste  of  fuel,  does  away  with  the  dirt  and 
trouble  of  separate  furnaces,  and  if  it  can  be  installed 
without  toov  great  tearing  up  of  pavements  is  not  ex- 
tremely costly.  In  a  short  time  there  should  be  such 
improvements  as  will  enable  heat  to  be  furnished  cooper- 
atively at  much  les^  expense  to  householders.  The  method 
has  not  thus  far  proved  to  be  appreciably  cheaper  except 
in  economy  of  labor  and  trouble — two  very  important 
considerations  in  many  cases.  It  is  therefore  necessary 
to  consider  devices  for  separate  heating  which  will  for  a 
considerable  time  be  the  main  reliance  of  the  housekeeper. 

The  old-fashioned  fireplaces  which  our  grandfathers 
used  were  very  large  and  required  an  immense  amount 
of  fuel.  When  the  fire  was  lighted  it  caused  a  tremen- 


6O  HOUSE    SANITATION 

dous  draught,  and  air  was  drawn  in  through  the  cracks 
around  the  loose  windows  and  from  the  cold  halls.  As 
a  result,  the  only  warm  place  in  the  room  was  close  to 
the  fireplace,  and  this  was  often  too  hot  for  comfort. 
/The  modern  fireplace  and  chimney  are  much  smaller,  and 
^erve  to  remove  the  impure  air  without  causing  sensible 
draughts.  The  heat  radiated  from  the  fire  does  not  warm 
the  air  directly,  as  may  be  seen  by  placing  in  front  of  the 
fire  a  thermometer  with  its  bulb  covered.  The  heat  is 
absorbed  by  surrounding  objects,  which  in  turn  warm  the 
air.  This  is  a  distinct  hygienic  advantage. 

When  the  house  is  heated  by  a  furnace,  or  by  steam 
or  hot-water  pipes  passing  through  an  air  chamber  in  the 
cellar,  and  hot  air  is  thus  introduced  into  the  rooms,  the 
hot-air  conductors  serve  also  as  ventilating  flues. 

The  furnace  is  best  adapted  for  houses  _of  moderate 
size,  and,  if  open  fires  are  used  in  connection  ^ffivt,  there 
is  also  the  best  possible  provision  for  the  removal  of 
impure  air. 

No  part  of  the  household  machinery  requires  more 
intelligent  or  judicious  management  than  the  furnace, 
and  it  should  never  be  left  wholly  to  the  care  of  servants. 
As  its  essential  parts  are  usually  completely  hidden  from 
view,  the  accompanying  cuts  are  given  to  aid  the  house- 
keeper in  understanding  its  construction. 

A  furnace  is  practically  a  large  stove  standing  in  an 
enclosed  air  chamber.  The  enclosing  surface  may  be  gal- 
vanized iron,  as  in  a  portable  furnace,  or  brick.  The 
eold-air,box  is  the  passage  which  connects  this  chamber 
with  the  out-of-door  air,  and  the  hot-air  pipes  distribute 
the  air  after  it  has  been  heated.  These  should  be  so 


62  HOUSE    SANITATION 

planned  in  reference  to  each  other  that  the  air  from  the 
cold-air  box  has  to  pass  at  least  once  around  the  furnace 
before  entering  the  hot-air  pipes. 

In  order  to  meet  the  too  prevalent  demand  for  com- 
pactness and  cheapness,  many  furnaces  are  made  on  the 
principle  of  furnishing  a  small  volume  of  air  highly 
heated.  The  air  as  it  enters  the  room  is  then  in  a  state 
which  is  called  "burnt."  Sanitary  requirements  strictly 
forbid  this.  The  cold-air  box,  the  fire-pot,  the  hot-air 
chamber,  the  pipes,  and  the  registers  should  all  be  large 
enough  to  supply  the  rooms  with  a  lar^fe  volume  of  air  / 
moderately  warmed,  not  over  120°  F.  Only  then  does 
the  furnace  meet  the  demands  of  both  sanitary  heating 
and  ventilation. 

The  material  of  which  the  furnace  is  made  is  of  less-~\ 
importance  than  the  thoroughness  of  its  construction. 
In  cast-iron  furnaces,  the  few  joints  necessary  should  be 
horizontal.  The  old  notion  that  cast  iron  allowed  carbon 
monoxide  to  pass  through  it  probably  arose  from  the 
fact  that  cast-iron  furnaces  and  stoves  have  many  joints 
which  it  is  difficult  to  keep  tight;  but  stoves  with  loose 
covers  and  cracks  have  been  used  in  kitchens  for  years 
with  apparent  safety.  A  moment's  consideration  of  the 
conditions  will  show  that  there  is  little  danger  from 
this  cause  if  the  draughts  of  the  furnace  are  properly 
arranged.  If  all  the  dampers  of  the  kitchen  stove  are 
suddenly  shut,  the  gas  comes  into  the  room,  but  not 
otherwise.  So  in  a  furnace,  if  the  draught  is  up  chimney, 
as  it  should  be,  there  is  little  danger  of  contaminating 
the  air. 

As  the  tendency  of  warm  air  is  always  to  rise,  it  will 


HEATING  63 

be  found  difficult  to  heat  rooms  on  the  first  floor  if  the 
pipes  leading  to  them,  which  are  necessarily  nearly  hori- 
zontal, are  more  than  fifteen  feet  long. 

Air  at  70°  is  capable  of  containing  much  more  mois- 
ture than  it  can  at  a  lower  temperature.  A  dish  of  water 
placed  near  the  furnace,  where  it  will  rapidly  evaporate, 
supplies  this  need  and  prevents  the  air  from  seeming 
parched  and  dry. 

Unless  the.  amount  of  fire  in  the  furnace  can  be  regu- 
lated easily,  the  family  are  apt  to  suffer  when  warm 
spring  days  come,  and  the  fire  is  allowed  to  go  out.  There 
should^  be  provision  for  open  fires,  or  a  low  fire  should 
be  kept  constantly  in  the  furnace  until  settled  warm 
weather.  The  amount  of  heat  can  be  most  easily  regu- 
lated when  the  house  is  heated  by  hot  water,  and  with  this 
method  there  is  no  danger  of  overheating  or  burning  the 
air.  Excellent  furnaces  are  on  the  market  which  use  hot 
water  as  an  auxiliary  to  hot  air.  These  are  especially 
adapted  to  buildings  which  it  is  difficult  to  heat  with  hot 
air  alone. 

If  the  rooms  are  heated  by  stoves  or  by  radiators,  some 
other  means  must  be  devised  to  bring  in  fresh  air,  It  is 
sometimes  introduced  through  the  floor  around  the  stove, 
so  that  it  is  warmed  before  passing  into  the  room. 

QUESTIONS 

I.    If  furnace  heat  is  used, — 

1.  Is  the  furnace  large  enough  to  heat  the  house  thor- 
oughly and  at  the  same  time  furnish  air  for  ventilation  ? 

2.  Are  all  the  joints  tight  and  the  castings  smooth 
and  sound? 


64  HOUSE    SANITATION 

3.  Are  the  furnace  and  pipes  periodically  examined 
and  cleaned? 

4.  Is  the  smoke  pipe  at  least  sixteen  inches  from  the 
ceiling  ? 

5.  Is  the  smoke  pipe  so  arranged  that  there  is  a  good 
draught  ? 

6.  Is  there  provision  for  the  evaporation  of  water? 

7.  Are  the  hot-air  pipes  so  arranged  that  they  do  not 
come  within  two  inches  of  any  woodwork? 

8.  Is  each  horizontal  pipe  less  than  fifteen   feet  in 
length? 

9.  If  your  house  is  so  arranged  that  there  must  be  a 
horizontal  distance  of  more  than  twenty-five  feet  between 
two  registers,  do  you  provide  a  second  furnace,  instead  of 
attempting  to  make  one  furnace  keep  the  house  warm  ? 

10.  Have  the  hot-air  pipes  dampers  in  the  cellar,  by 
which  the  heat  may  be  cut  off  from  any  part  of  the  house 
when  desired?    Are  these  labeled? 

11.  Is  the  cold-air  box  short  and  direct,  opening  out; 
of  doors? 

12.  If  necessarily  long,  is  it  easily  cleaned  and  so 
arranged  that  it  cannot  become  a  receptacle  for  rubbish  ? 

13.  Is  it  kept  perfectly  clean  and  dry? 

14.  Is  the  area  of  its  opening  equal  at  least  to  the  area 
of  all  the  registers  less  one-sixth? 

15.  If,  unfortunately,  the  cellar  is  not  kept  clean  and 
the  air  in  it  free  from  contamination,  is  the  cold-air  box 
so  tight  that  the  furnace  cannot  draw  any  air  from  the 
cellar  ? 

Note. — Wooden  air  boxes  are  not  to  be  recommended, 
because  they  are  liable  to  have  cracks  and  imperfect  joints. 


HEATING  65 

If  such  exist,  some  of  the  injurious  effects  may  be  re- 
moved by  filling  the  cracks  with  cotton  wool.  If  an  open- 
ing or  door,  such  as  is  shown  in  the  cut,  is  provided,  to 
be  used  in  cleaning  out  the  air  box,  it  should  be  made 
to  close  tightly,  so  that  air  may  never  be  drawn  from  the 
cellar  into  the  furnace. 

1 6.  Has  it  a  movable  slide  by  which  the  amount  of  air 
admitted  may  be  regulated  ? 

17.  Are  there  two  cold-air  boxes,  on  different  sides  of 
the   house,  to   avoid  the  annoyance   of  too  great  wind 
pressure  ? 

Note. — This    is    especially    desirable    for    a    country 
house  in  an  exposed  situation. 

1 8.  Has  the  outside  opening  of  the  cold-air  box  a 
wire  netting  to  keep  out  falling  leaves,  or  cats,  rats,  etc.  ? 

19.  Is   this   opening  away   from  every  drain  venti- 
lator, cesspool,  yard  gully,  ash  barrel,  swill  tub,  privy, 
or  other  source  of  contamination? 

20.  In  a  city  house,  is  it  on  the  side  of  the  house 
farthest  from  the  street,  to  avoid  the  entrance  of  dust, 
etc.? 

21.  If  not,  is  cheesecloth  or  bunting  stretched  over  it 
to  sift  out  the  dust  and  is  this  cloth  frequently  cleansed  ? 

22.  Is  it  at  least  two  feet  above  the  ground? 

23.  Does  the  surface  around  it  slope  away  sufficiently 
to  carry  off  moisture  rapidly  ? 

24.  Are  the  registers  so  placed  as  to  collect  as  little 
dust  as  possible,  i.e.,  in  the  wall,  when  practicable? 

25.  Are  they  large  enough  for  the  room  they  try  to 
heat,  i.  e.,  two  square  feet  for  ten  thousand  cubic  feet 
of  space? 


66  HOUSE    SANITATION 

26.  If  they  are  in  the  floor,  are  they  taken  out  at 
least  once  a  month  and  thoroughly  cleaned  and  the  pipe 
wiped  out  with  a  damp  cloth  as  far  down  as  possible  ? 

27.  Are  you  careful  to  provide  an  outlet  for  the  air 
in  the  room,  especially  in  very  cold  weather,  as  otherwise 
there  will  be  no  chance  for  the  warmed  air  to  enter? 

28.  Are  the  registers  so  placed  with  regard  to  the 
fireplace,  ventilator,  or  window  that  the  pure,  warm  air, 
on  entering  the  room,  does  not  at  once  pass  out  by  the 
outlet  for  foul  a^r,  and  thus  cause  a  draught  and  lessen 
the  benefit  from  the  furnace? 

II.  If  the  house  is  heated  either  wholly  or  in  part 
by  open  fires, — 

1.  Do  you  see  that  an  abundant  supply  of  fresh  air 
is  furnished  to  the  fuel  to  avoid  the  formation  of  carbon 
monoxide  by  imperfect  combustion,  and  also  to  prevent 
the  air  used  to  replace  that  which  passes  up  chimney 
from  being  drawn  from  other  parts  of  the  house? 

Note. — With  coal,  a  blue  flame  indicates  the  presence 
of  carbon  monoxide,  a  most  poisonous  gas. 

2.  Are  the  draughts  of  the  chimney  strong  enough 
to  carry  away  all  the  products  of  combustion? 

3.  Is  the  hearth  laid  on  a  brick  arch,  to  prevent 
danger  from  fire? 

III.  If  stoves  are  used, — 

1.  Is  there  a  provision  for  the  introduction  of  fresh 
air  to  take  the  place  of  that  drawn  from  the  room  by  the 
stove  ? 

2.  When  the  fire  is  kindling,  after  putting  on  fresh 
fuel,    are    the    draughts    arranged    so    that    no    carbon 
monoxide  or  coal  gas  passes  into  the  room? 


HEATING  67 

Note. — Neglect  of  this  precaution  often  leads  to 
serious  or  fatal  consequences. 

3.  Do  you  keep  an  open  dish  of  water  on  the  stove 
to  give  the  requisite  moisture  to  the  air  ? 

IV.  If  the  house  is  heated  either  by  steam  or  hot 
water, — 

1.  Are  the  boilers  inspected  once  every  year,  to  see  if 
they  are  in  good  condition  ? 

2.  Are  the  pipes  tight,  so  that  they  do  not  leak  ? 

3.  Are  the  pipes  in  the  cellar  covered  with  asbestos 
or  some  other  nonconducting  material  ? 

4.  If  the  rooms  are  heated  by  direct  radiation,  i.  e.,  if 
radiators  for  hot  water  or  steam  are  placed  in  the  rooms, 
are  means  provided  for  introducing  plenty  of  fresh  air 
and  supplying  needed  moisture  to  the  air  ? 

Note. — The  need  for  moisture  is  imperative  when  the 
air  is  heated  excessively,  as  it  is  with  steam  or  an  over- 
heated furnace. 


CHAPTER  VII 
LIGHT  AND  LIGHTING 

LIGHT  is  considered,  both  scientifically  and  popularly, 
as  of  great  importance  in  warding  off  disease  and 
maintaining  health.  The  phrase  has  become  stereotyped 
that  "every  room  should  have  the  sunlight  during  a  part 
at  least  of  each  day."  Under  the  influence  of  bacterio- 
logical lore,  the  reason  for  this  is  increasingly  believed  to 
be  that  sunlight  acts  as  a  disinfectant  and  destroys  disease 
germs.  In  the  abstract  this  is  true.  Tuberculosis  and 
typhoid  fever  germs,  for  example,  survive  but  a  few 
minutes  when  exposed  to  sunlight.  The  action  of  diffused 
light  and  of  the  electric  light  as  well  is  to  lessen  the  activ- 
ity of  bacteria  and  other  forms  of  germ  life,  and  they  may 
perish  in  a  few  days.  Their  growth  takes  place  in  the 
dark,  as  is  shown  not  only  by  the  methods  used  by  the 
bacteriologist  in  his  laboratory,  but  by  the  experience  of 
the  housewife  with  the  molds  in  her  bread  box  or  her 
covered  cheese. 

These  facts  need  careful  interpretation  if  they  are  to 
be  used  as  the  basis  for  sanitary  practice.  A  process, 
in  order  to  be  truly  called  disinfection,  must  act  with  a 
fair  degree  of  rapidity.  This  is  true  of  sunlight  only 
when  it  is  direct,  and  there  are  very  few  places  in  a 
room  on  which  the  sun  shines  directly  even  for  a  few 
minutes.  The  light  is  chiefly  diffused  and  even  then  is 

68 


LIGHT    AND    LIGHTING  69 

still  further  dimmed  by  the  shadows  from  furniture, 
curtains,  and  other  large,  dark  objects.  In  consequence, 
for  practical  purposes  of  disinfection,  the  admission  of 
sunlight  is  not  to  be  trusted.  It  is  not  a  substitute  for 
cleanliness.  The  proper  method  is  not  to  allow  disease 
germs  or  other  forms  of  microscopic  life  to  be  harbored 
in  a  room,  to  be  destroyed  by  the  long  and  uncertain 
process  of  devitalization  by  diffused  light.  This  point 
becomes  still  more  reasonable  if  it  is  true,  as  bacteriolo- 
gists are  beginning  to  suggest,  that  dried,  dead  bacilli 
may  have  harmful  effects. 

The  question  may  well  be  asked,  "What  becomes, 
then,  of  sunlight  as  a  sanitary  agent?"  It  does  not  in- 
deed disappear,  but  its  value  must  be  recognized  as  psy- 
chical and  moral  rather  than  as  bactericidal.  The  effect 
of  the  mind  on  the  body  is  well  known  though  not  clearly 
understood,  and  living  in  sunshine  for  a  part  of  the  time 
undoubtedly  affects  the  spirits  in  such  a  way  as  to  react 
upon  the  physical  condition,  increase  the  vitality,  and  jl 
enable  the  body  better  to  resist  disease.  Sunlight  also  is 
a  moral  spur  to  cleanliness.  It  not  only  reveals  dust  and 
dirt,  but,  if  one  has  any  standard  of  decency,  proves  a 
great  stimulus  in  removing  the  offending  sight. 

Another  aspect  of  light  is  of  significance  from  a 
practical  standpoint.  Any  observer  of  plant  life,  such  as 
a  vine,  can  readily  determine  that  growth  takes  place 
at  night  or  in  the  dark  and  is  checked  by  sunlight,  just  as 
in  the  case  of  bacteria.  The  same  is  true  of  animal  life. 
This  would  indicate  that  young  children  in  whom  the  cells 
are  multiplying  should  not  be  exposed  to  direct  sunlight 
for  more  than  a  brief  time,  if  at  all.  The  baby  can  easily 


7O  HOUSE    SANITATION 

be  kept  out  of  doors  and  given  the  advantages  of  free 
air  and  at  the  same  time  be  properly  shaded. 

The  effect  of  bright  light  on  the  nerves  is  another 
consideration.  The  excitement  which  is  felt  in  a  bril- 
liantly lighted  dance  hall  or  the  untimely  waking  when 
the  early  morning  sun  pours  into  one's  bedroom  are  in 
contrast  to  the  feeling  of  quiet  which  comes  on  entering 
a  dimly  lighted  church  or  from  drawing  the  shades  for 
an  afternoon  nap  or  to  relieve  a  nervous  headache. 

Such  considerations  show  that  there  are  limits  which 
must  be  observed  in  the  use  of  sunlight  for  health  pur- 
poses, and  that  while  sunlight  should  have  free  access 
to  rooms  there  should  be  provision  for  excluding  it  when 
advisable. 

There  seems  no  valid  reason  to  object  to  dark  sleeping 
rooms,  provided  they  are  kept  clean  and  well  ventilated, 
for  dark  they  must  be  when  in  use  as  sleeping  rooms  and 
dirty  they  should  not  be  then  or  if  occupied  at  any  time 
for  other  purposes. 

Much  legislation  concerning  the  required  size  of 
windows  rests  on  a  false  assumption.  If  the  size  of  the 
window  bears  a  given  relation  to  the  area  of  the  floor,  as 
the  law  often  requires,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that 
the  room  will  be  adequately  lighted  OE  even  ventilated. 
The  window  may  be  so  shielded  by  a  near-by  building 
or  tree,  or  may  be  so  curtained  or  obstructed,  that  com- 
paratively little  light  can  enter,  while  it  may  be  so  heavy 
or  so  unwieldy  that  it  is  not  easily  opened  for  the  admis- 
sion of  air.  The  requirement  of  adequate  light  should  be 
based  not  on  the  size  of  the  window,  but  on  the  actual] 
light  admitted,  and  this  can  be  determined  by  the  ability 


LIGHT   AND    LIGHTING  71 

to  read  ordinary  type  at  a  fixed  distance  from  the  window 
during  the  middle  of  the  day. 

Under  the  .conditions  of  modern  civilization,  much 
reading,  writing,  and  sewing  is  necessarily  done  in  the 
evening  and  by  artificial  light.  During  the  hours  spent 
under  artificial  light  we  are  in  abnormal  conditions — 
conditions  which  at  best  are  unsanitary  and  unnatural — 
and  all  possible  precautions  should  be  taken  to  render 
them  as  harmless  as  possible.  It  is  believed  that  much 
headache,  often  attributed  to  other  causes,  is  in  reality 
due  to  unsuitable  lighting.  This  may  come  about  through 
the  escape  or  production  of  harmful  gases,  excessive 
heat,  or  insufficient  or  too  strong  a  light.  These  dangers 
are  least  to  be  feared  from  the  electric  light,  which  is, 
fortunately,  coming  into  more  general  use,  although 
candles,  kerosene,  and  gas  are  still  used. 

The  two  chief  points  to  be  observed  in  connection 
with  the  artificial  light  are :  First,  To  avoid  undue  vitia- 
tion and  heating  of  air  in  the  room.  Second,  To  secure 
a  strong  and  steady  light  without  glare. 

All  combustion  uses  up  oxygen,  produces  carbonic 
acid  gas  and  water  vapor,  and  increases  the  heat ;  hence, 
with  the  exception  of  the  electric  light,  all  artificial  illu- 
mination of  a  room  is  a  great  tax  upon  the  air  supply 
and  upon  the  means  of  ventilation. 

As  the  discomforts  arising  from  poorly  ventilated 
rooms  are  largely  due  to  excessive  heat  and  moisture, 
the  method  of  lighting  is  a  matter  of  great  importance. 

Combustion  not  only  furnishes  the  desired  light,  but 
it  also  yields  undesired  heat,  and  this  heat  is  the  cause  of 
much  of  the  headache  in  the  evening  as  well  as  of  much 


HOUSE    SANITATION 


injury  to  the  eyes.  If  it  is  necessary  to  hold  the  head 
near  the  light,  it  is  best  to  have  some  kind  of  shade  which 
is  not  a  good  conductor  of  heat. 

The  amount  of  vitiation  of  the  air  and  the.  amount 
of  heat  given  off  are  seen  by  the  following  table:1 


T3 

31 

|l 

0 

Quantity 
consumed 

ll 

11 

ll 

2*1 

.ss  2 

•-^   w 

51 

111 

§  CLi 

X   ~ 

o  *^ 

o  a 

5  o. 

.5  «Trt 

0 

o 

o 

ffi 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Tallow  candles 

2,200  grains 

16 

10.7 

7-3 

8.2 

1,400 

12.0 

Sperm  candles 

1,740    » 

16 

9.6 

6-5 

6-5 

M37 

1  1.0 

Paraffine  oil  lamp 

992    « 

16 

6.2 

4-5 

3-5 

1,030 

7-5 

Kerosene  oil  lamp 

909    « 

16 

5-9 

4.1 

3-3 

1,030 

7.0 

Coal  gas,  No.  5, 

batwing  burner 

5.5  cu.  ft. 

16 

6.5 

2.8 

7-3 

1,194 

5° 

Coal  gas,  Argand 

burner 

4.8  «  « 

16 

5.8 

2.6 

6.4 

1,240 

4-3 

Coal  gas,  regenera- 

tion (Siemens) 

burner 

3.2  "   " 

32 

3-6 

1.7 

4.2 

760 

2.8 

Coal  gas  (Welsbach 

incandescent) 

3-5   "    " 

5° 

4.1 

1.8 

4-7 

763 

3-° 

Electric  incandescent 

light 

0.3  Ib.  coal 

16 

o.o 

o.o 

o.o 

37 

o.o 

JNotter  and  Firth:  Treatise  on  Hygiene,  page  141. 

Since  in  natural  illumination  the  light  is  diffused 
through  the  room,  it  would  seem  to  follow  that  artificial 
illumination  should  be  similarly  diffused  in  order  to  avoid 
undue  strain  upon  the  eyes  when  looking  up  from  book 
or  work. 

Welsbach  burners  favor  complete  combustion  as  well 
as  greatly  increase  the  light. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  one  ordinary  gas  jet  will 
consume  as  much  air  as  two  people,  and  a  kerosene  lamp 
will  use  as  much  as  four  people. 


LIGHT    AND    LIGHTING  73 

Unless  the  burner  is  of  a  good  pattern,  there  may  be 
an  escape  of  unconsumed  gas,  which  still  further  vitiates 
the  air.  All  so-called  whistling  of  the  gas  means  an 
escape  of  unconsumed  gas  and  should  not  be  allowed. 
All  illuminating  gas  contains  carbon  monoxide,  which 
is  odorless  and  extremely  poisonous.  It  is  more  to  be 
dreaded  than  any  other  harmful  substance  that  may  find 
its  way  into  the  house.  Its  effects  are  insidious  but 
certain,  and  that  makes  it  a  greater  source  of  danger 
even  than  disease  germs,  to  which  people  are  often  im- 
mune. Water  gas  is  nearly '  odorless,  and  as  it  contains 
a  considerable  amount  of  carbon  monoxide  the  law  should 
compel  that  some  odorous  gas  should  be  mixed  with  it, 
in  order  that  its  escape  may  be  quickly  and  easily  de- 
tected. The  dangers  from  illuminating  gas  may  be  sum- 
marized as  occurring  as  follows : 

1.  Leakage  from  poor  construction  of  pipes  in  the 
house,  imperfect  tubing,  badly  fitting  stopcocks,  prema- 
ture turning  on,  incomplete  shutting  off,  and  defective 
pipes  in  the  ground. 

2.  Gases  produced  by  combustion. 

3.  Oxygen  used  up  by  combustion. 

4.  Excessive  heat. 

5.  Increase  of  humidity. _ 

Since  it  is  estimated  that  one-third  of  the  fires  which 
occur  are  caused  by  kerosene  lamps,  it  may  not  be  out  of 
place  to  mention  some  precautions  as  to  their  use. 

Kerosene  is  obtained  by  distilling  crude  petroleum, 
which  consists  of  a  variety  of  inflammable  and  more  or 
less  volatile  liquids.  The  more  volatile  give  the  most 
brilliant  light,  such  as  gasoline  used  in  gas  machines. 


74  HOUSE    SANITATION 

The  vapor  of  these  volatile  portions  mixes  readily 
with  air,  and  mixtures  thus  formed  explode  violently 
when  ignited. 

Some  of  the  cheaper  kerosenes  on  the  market  will  give 
off  inflammable  vapors  when  the  oil  is  heated  to  90°  or 
ioo°F.  That  is,  if  the  reservoir  of  the  lamp,  with  the 
burner  and  wick  removed,  were  half  filled  with  kerosene 
and  placed  in  a  dish  of  warm  water,  when  the  oil  was 
warmed  to  90°  or  100°  F.  the  space  above  the  reservoir 
would  be  filled  with  a  vapor  which  would  explode  if  a 
lighted  match  were  brought  in  contact  with  it,  and  if  the 
lamp  were  broken  and  the  oil  spilled  it  would  burn  freely, 
setting  fire  to  whatever  it  reached. 

Since  it  is  not  uncommon  to  have  lamps  near  the  stove, 
and  since,  especially  with  a  lamp  shade,  much  heat  is  re- 
flected downwards,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  temperature  of 
90°  to  100°  F.  is  not  unfrequently  attained. 

The  only  real  safety  is  to  use  an  oil  which  will  not 
give  off  inflammable  vapor  at  any  temperature  likely  to 
be  reached.  Oil  which  can  be  heated  to  140°  F.  without 
yielding  this  vapor  will  not  take  fire  even  if  the  lamp  is 
broken  and  the  oil  spilled ;  it  will  only  burn  at  the  wick, 
where  it  is  heated  much  more. 

The  different  state  laws  fix  the  temperature  (called 
the  "flashing  point")  below  which  the  oil  must  not  give 
off  these  inflammable  vapors,  at  different  degrees  from 
100°  to  130°.  120°  would  seem  to  be  a  good  mean. 

To  blow  the  flame  strongly  is  to  run  the  risk  of  driv- 
ing it  down  into  the  reservoir.  The  lamps  should  there- 
fore have  a  mechanical  appliance  for  putting  out  the 
flame. 


LIGHT    AND    LIGHTING  75 

Assuming  that  oil  of  reasonable  safety  is  used,  two 
additional  points  ought  to  be  noted: 

1.  The  lamp  should  be  filled  daily,  for  two  reasons: 

(a)  The  higher  the  flame  from  the  reservoir  of  oil,  the 
less  is  the  light  given  for  equal  volumes  of  oil  burned. 

(b)  The  larger  the  air  space  over  the  oil  in  the  reservoir, 
the  greater  is  the  danger  of  an  explosion. 

2.  Perfection  of  combustion  also  depends  upon  suffi- 
cient access  of  air  to  the  wick  where  the  burning  occurs. 
This  is  attained  in  two  ways:  (a)  By  round  wicks  with 
air  space  inside  as  well  as  outside  (the  Argand  and  stu- 
dent lamps  are  of  this  type),    (b)   By  the  access  of  air 
to  both  sides  of  the  flat  wick  (the  duplex  burner,  with 
double  flat  wick  and  extinguisher,  is  the  type  most  used). 
A  good  burner  allows  the  air  to  enter  freely  at  the  base, 
and  hence  the  small  apertures  must  not  become  clogged. 

QUESTIONS 

Natural  Illumination 

1.  Does  direct  sunlight  enter  some,  if  not  all,  of  the 
rooms  during  a  part  of  the  day  ? 

2.  Are  window  shades  so  arranged  that  rooms  may 
be  darkened  at  need  ? 

3.  Are  the  windows  large  enough  and  so  placed  as 
to  admit  light  to  all  parts  of  the  room  ? 

Note. — This  should  aid  in  preventing  the  accumula- 
tion of  dust. 

4.  Is  the  light  strong  enough  on  winter  days  to  enable 
one  to  read  ordinary  type  eight  feet  away  from  the  win- 
dow between  the  hours  of  10  A.M.  and  3  P.M.? 


76  HOUSE   SANITATION 

5.  Do  you  remember  that  glass  may  be  cut  so  as  to 
throw  light  in  any  desired  direction? 

Artificial  Illumination 
I.    If  gas  is  used, — 

(a)  Have  you  a  plan  of  the  gas  pipes  in  the  house? 

(b)  Do  you  know  how  and  where  to  turn  off  the  gas 
from  the  house? 

(c)  Were   the   gas    pipes    and    fixtures    constructed 
thoroughly  and  inspected  carefully  before  they  were  used? 

(d)  Are  the  gas  pipes  and  fixtures  kept  tight,  so  that 
no  gas  can  escape  into  the  room  and  vitiate  the  air  ? 

Note. — The  meter  should  be  read  from  time  to  time 
when  gas  is  not  in  use. 

(e)  Is  an  abundance  of  pure  air  introduced  into  every 
room  in  which  a  lamp  or  a  gas  jet  is  burning,  to  make  up 
for  the  oxygen  consumed  by  the  flame  ? 

(/)  Is  sufficient  precaution  taken  to  provide  means 
for  the  quick  removal  of  the  gases  generated  by  the 
flame? 

Note. — In  case  stationary  gas  jets  are  used,  it  is  prac- 
ticable to  have  the  products  of  combustion  carried  out  of 
the  room  by  means  of  flues. 

(g)  Do  you  also  provide  for  the  removal  of  the  air, 
which  is  always  superheated  and  unduly  humid  as  the 
result  of  the  combustion  of  gas  ? 

Note. — This  may  be  done  by  providing  for  circulation 
of  air  through  the  room  by  means  of  inlets  and  outlets, 
such  as  doors  and  windows. 

(h)  Are  the  modern  gas  globes  used,  with  large  open- 
ings at  the  bottom,  in  order  to  secure  a  steady  flame  ? 


LIGHT    AND    LIGHTING  77 

(*)  Is  the  gas  cock  so  arranged  that  it  will  turn  no 
farther  when  the  stream  of  gas  is  shut  off? 

Note. — Gas  cocks  without  a  stop  turn  all  the  way 
round,  and  it  is  difficult  to  know  when  the  gas  is  shut 
off.  Probably  more  fatal  accidents  arise  from  this  cause 
than  from  blowing  out  the  gas. 

(/)  If  drop-lights  are  used,  do  you  make  sure  that  the 
tubing  and  connections  are  sound  and  tight  ? 

(k)  Is  especial  care  taken  that  a  match  is  lighted  and 
ready  to  apply  before  the  gas  is  turned  on,  in  order  that 
none  may  escape  to  vitiate  the  air  unnecessarily? 

2.    If  kerosene  is  used, — 

(a)  Do  you  use  oil  of  120°  F.  flash  test,  as  shown  by 
standard  instruments? 

(b)  Do    you    take    care    to    select    the    best    burner 
possible  ? 

(c)  Does  the  burner  have  some  mechanical  means  of 
putting  out  the  flame  ? 

(d)  If  not,  is  care  taken  to  turn  the  flame  down  and 
blow  across  the  top  of  the  chimney  and  never  directly 
down  into  it? 

(e)  Are  the  burners  boiled  occasionally  in  water  con- 
taining a  little  washing  soda,  to  prevent  creeping  of  the 
oil,  as  well  as  to  clean  them  ? 

(/)  Are  you  careful  not  to  leave  the  lamps  with  the 
flame  turned  down  ? 

(g)  Do  you  change  the  wicks  often  ?  They  strain  out 
impurities  and  soon  become  clogged. 

(h)  Are  "packed  lamps,"  which  have  wicking  satu- 
rated with  oil  and  no  liquid,  provided  for  carrying  about 
the  house  ? 


78  HOUSE    SANITATION 

(*)  Are  the  servants  cautioned  never  to  fill  a  kerosene 
lamp  near  a  fire  or  burning  lamp  ? 

3.    If  electricity  is  used, — 

(a)  Are  you  sure  that  all  wiring  is  properly  done,  in 
order  to  prevent  danger  from  fire  ? 

(&)  In  the  placing  of  bulbs,  do  you  remember  that 
you  can  get  better  diffused  light  from  several  scattered 
bulbs  than  from  a  single  one  of  high  power  ? 

(c)  In  choosing  globes,  do  you  take  into  account  the 
purpose  for  which  they  are  intended,  i.  e.,  to  diffuse  or  to 
concentrate  light  ? 


CHAPTER  VIII 
FURNISHING 

IT  may  be  assuming  too  much  to  claim  that  the  true 
standard  of  beauty  in  house  furnishings  conforms 
strictly  to  that  required  for  the  best  sanitary  conditions ; 
but,  surely,  it  is  not  extreme  to  declare  emphatically  that 
the  conventional  standard  is  far  from  being  one  either  of 
beauty  or  of  health.  Wholesome  air  and  sunshine,  two 
essentials  of  healthful  living,  cannot  be  obtained  in  full 
measure  in  the  modern  elaborately  furnished  house.  And 
a  common  and  growing  mistake  is  that  of  using  our 
houses  chiefly  as  a  means  of  displaying  the  objects  which 
our  tastes  and  our  wealth  permit  us  to  procure,  while  we 
disregard  the  far  more  important  claims  of  good  health. 
"The  first  wealth  is  health,"  says  Emerson.  Our  homes 
are  preeminently  for  ourselves.  Why  should  we  turn 
them  into  show  rooms,  that  our  neighbors  may  come  and 
gape?  Is  there  no  better  way  of  responding  to  affection- 
ate remembrance  or  safeguarding  true  sentiment  than 
by  cumbering  one's  rooms  with  useless  and  quite  possibly 
not  beautiful  gifts  from  friends? 

The  canons  of  good  taste  everywhere  demand  sim- 
plicity and  adaptability  as  their  true  basis.  Furnishings 
which  destroy  comfort  and  injure  health  cannot,  when 
judged  by  this  rule,  be  recognized  as  truly  beautiful. 

That  furnishings  may  destroy  comfort  cannot  be 
denied  by  any  woman  who  has  found  herself  penned  in 

79 


80  HOUSE    SANITATION 

an  over  furnished  room,  where  the  mere  act  of  turning 
around  may  be  attended  by  direful  consequences  in  the 
shape  of  overturned  Lares  and  Penates. 

But  how  can  furnishings  injure  health?  •- 

(a)  By  preventing  free  access  of  light  and  air. 

(b)  By  laying  unnecessary  work  on  the  shoulders  of 
the  busy  housewife,  so  that  the  proper  care  of  her  house 
becomes  a  burden  and  an  annoyance  to  her  and  absorbs 
her  time  and  strength  to  the  exclusion  of  other  worthy 
interests  and  occupations. 

(r)  By  forming  catch-alls  for  dust.  Dust  is  com- 
posed of  many  widely  different  things :  particles  of  carbon 
(soot),  of  granite,  sand,  or  other  mineral  matter;  pollen 
of  flowers,  bits  of  plant  stems,  bark,  leaves ;  manure,  small 
pieces  of  hair,  dried  skin,  shreds  of  clothing,  and  micro- 
scopic forms  of  life,  such  as  bacteria  and  molds — these 
are  some  of  the  almost  infinite  possibilities  of  dust,  v 

In  the  past,  all  kinds  of  dust  have  been  condemned 
indiscriminately.  We  now  know  that  while  it  may  not 
be  sightly  to  have  particles  of  sand  or  soot  on  the  piano 
or  bookcase,  there  is  no  possibility  of  any  harm  to  health 
from  them.  On  the  contrary,  the  constant  chase  after 
dust  which  lies  quietly  out  of  the  way  may  lead  to  fatigue 
and  worry,  and  should  no  longer  be  taken  as  the  measure 
of  a  housekeeper's  skill.  Her  chief  concern  should  be 
centered  on  the  microscopic  forms  of  living  dust,  espe- 
cially if  they  are  floating  in  the  air.  Some  of  these  germs 
can  attack  the  human  body,  causing  disease.  Fortunately, 
they  do  not  long  survive  outside  of  the  human  body, 
particularly  in  light,  dry  places.  Moreover,  they  have  to 
come  from  people  who  have  the  disease,  and  we  are  learn- 


FURNISHING 


8l 


ing  to  adopt  methods  by  which  sick  people  shall  not  be  a 
menace  to  well  people. 

Other  germs  work  in  kitchen  and  storeroom,  and  are 
responsible  for  the  souring,  fermentation,  decay,  and 
molding  of  foods.  Moreover,  organic  dust,  when  decom- 
posing under  the  influence  of  heat  and  moisture,  is 
one  source  of  the  close,  stuffy  odor  often  noticed  in 
ill-ventilated  or  heavily  furnished  rooms.  It  has  been 
claimed  that  such  dust  decomposing  on  the  top  of  hot 
radiators  gives  rise  to  substances  which  make  the  air 
distinctly  harmful.  This  would  suggest  that  the  hori- 
zontal surfaces  of  radiators  should  be  smooth  and  kept 
scrupulously  clean.  The  safe  course  in  regard  to  dust  is 
to  discountenance  all  kinds. 

It  is  obviously  impracticable  to  formulate  hard  and 
fast  rules  as  regards  furnishings.  It  must  rest  with  the 
judgment  of  each  housekeeper  to  determine  how  rigidly 
the  law  of  simplicity  shall  be  applied.  Where  many  serv- 
ants are  at  hand  to  do  the  extra  work  imposed  by  elaborate 
furnishings,  there  is  no  reason  for  excluding  objects  of 
beauty — carved  woods,  rare  bric-a-brac,  rich  hangings — 
which  by  their  presence  afford  us  daily  pleasure.  But 
when  proper  care  cannot  be  given  to  such  accessories,  let 
them  be  sacrificed,  unquestioningly,  on  the  altars  of  com- 
fort and  cleanliness.  Simply  remember  the  raison  d'etre 
of  furnishings  and  it  will  be  impossible  to  go  far  astray. 
They  are  agents  to  minister  to  our  comfort  or  our  pleas- 
ure. As  soon  as  their  proper  care  becomes  a  burden  to 
the  housekeeper,  so  soon  as  she  allows  her  furnishings 
to  crowd  and  elbow  her  in  her  own  home,  she  has  re- 
versed the  proper  relationship:  she  has  not  conquered, 


82  HOUSE    SANITATION 

but  succumbed  to  her  environment.  Let  each  housewife 
be  mistress  of  her  furnishings,  else  will  she  be  their  slave ! 

In  general,  then,  emphasis  should  be  laid  on  simplicity, 
both  for  the  sake  of  comfort  and  for  the  sake  of  clean- 
liness. Fortunately,  it  is  easy  to  satisfy  the  aesthetic  sense 
through  beauty  of  color  and  line.  The  following  sugges- 
tions serve  to  show  how  these  ends  may  be  attained : 

Floors.  Carpets  entirely  covering  and  nailed  to  the 
floor  cannot  be  kept  thoroughly  clean,  and  are,  moreover, 
a  constant  temptation  to  the  economical  housewife  to  ex- 
clude the  sun.  Mattings  and  loosely  woven  carpets  allow 
dust  to  sift  through  them  to  the  floor  beneath,  whence 
it  cannot  be  removed.  Hard  polished  or  painted  floors, 
with  rugs,  are,  in  the  opinion  of  many,  preferable  to 
carpets  or  mattings,  although  their  care  involves  much 
hard  work  and  heavy  lifting,  and  where  there  are  old 
people  or  children  they  are  not  very  safe  because  of  the 
danger  of  slipping.  On  the  whole,  the  rug  or  carpet 
which  nearly  covers  the  floor  and  is  not  nailed  down  is 
most  desirable,  and  with  the  help  of  the  vacuum  cleaner 
is  much  more  easily  kept  clean  than  hardwood  floors 
and  small  rugs,  which  formerly  received  the  stamp  of 
approval  of  the  sanitarians. 

Walls,  Ceilings,  Woodwork.  Each  should  be  so 
finished  as  to  be  easily  kept  free  from  dust.  To  this  end 
it  is  advisable  to  have  the  inside  woodwork,  walls,  and 
ceilings  smooth  and  of  a  nature  to  permit  thorough 
cleaning. 

Windows.  These  are  for  the  purpose  of  admitting 
light  and  sometimes  air.  This  purpose  cannot  be  accom- 
plished where,  as  is  not  uncommon,  they  are  barricaded 


FURNISHING  83 

with  two  sets  of  blinds,  two  sets  of  shades,  and  lace 
curtains  or  heavy  draperies.  It  is  quite  as  possible,  how- 
ever, to  have  too  few  curtains  as  too  many.  There  should 
be  enough  to  shut  out  the  glare  of  the  sun  when  desirable. 
Furniture  and  Hangings.  The  woodwork  of  furniture, 
even  the  concealed  surfaces,  should  be  smooth  and  var- 
nished or  otfed,  to  prevent  the  lodging  of  dust  and  the 
absorption  of  gases.  On  this  account,  also,  the  use  of 
upholstered  furniture  or  of  heavy  woolen  draperies  of 
loose  texture,  which  cannot  be  easily  freed  from  dust, 
should  be  reduced  to  the  lowest  possible  point. 

QUESTIONS 

I.    General 

1.  Is  the  inside  finish  of  the  house  as  free  as  possible 
from  horizontal  projections,  such  as  elaborate  cornices 
and  mantels,  which  may  serve  as  lodging  places  for  dust 
and  which  require  more  time  for  cleaning  than  the  house- 
keeper can  give  ? 

2.  Are  the  walls  so  finished  that  they  can  be  easily 
freed  from  dust  by  the  use  of  a  wall  mop? 

Note. — A  good  wall  mop  may  be  made  by  fastening  a 
soft  cloth  firmly  around  a  broom  or  by  drawing  over  it 
a  bag  of  Canton  flannel. 

3.  Are  the  wall  papers,  draperies,  and  carpets  free 
from  arsenic? 

4.  Since    dust    sifts    through    mattings    and   loosely 
woven  carpets,  are  the  floors  laid  with  closely  matched 
boards,  even  where  they  are  to  be  covered  ? 

5.  In  case  rugs  or  carpets  covering  only  a  portion  of 


84  HOUSE    SANITATION 

the  floor  are  not  adopted,  are  the  edges  of  the  carpet 
frequently  cleaned  after  sweeping,  by  the  use  of  a  damp 
sponge  or  cloth? 

6.  If  there  is  a  carpet  under  the  dining  room  table, 
is   it   occasionally    sent   to   the   naphtha   laundry   to   be 
cleansed  ? 

7.  Are  the  inside  shutters  made  without  slats? 

8.  Are  the  Venetian  blinds  banished  to  the  piazza.  ? 

9.  Are  the  windows  of  all  rooms  so  curtained  as  to 
offer  scant  hospitality  to  dust  and  to  admit  or  exclude 
light  according  to  need? 

10.  Are  hangings  and  draperies  so  arranged  as  to  be 
easily  taken  down  and  shaken  ? 

11.  Is  the  upholstered  furniture  made  without  tuft- 
ing, so  that  it  can  be  thoroughly  cleaned  by  brushing? 

12.  Do  the  living  rooms  contain  neither  furniture  nor 
ornaments  which  cannot  be  properly  cared  for,  or  do  not 
give  satisfaction  or  comfort  to  the  members  of  the  family? 

13.  Are   clothespresses,    cupboards,    and   storerooms 
kept  free  from  dust,  mold,  and  accumulations  of  rubbish  ? 

II.    The  Bedrooms 

1.  Are  soiled  clothes  removed  at  once  from  the  sleep- 
ing rooms  and  placed  in  a  suitable  receptacle  ? 

2.  Are  useless  ornaments  and  needlework  banished 
from  the  bedrooms  ? 

3.  Have  the  windows  such  curtains  only  as  can  be 
washed  ? 

4.  Is  the  air  allowed  to  circulate  freely  around  the 
beds,  unobstructed  by  curtains  ? 

5.  Are    mattresses    and    pillows    aired    daily,    often 


FURNISHING  85 

turned  and  dusted,  occasionally  cleansed  with  naphtha, 
or  otherwise,  and  frequently  exposed  in  the  open  air  on 
a  sunny  day  for  several  consecutive  hours? 

6.  Are  the  bed  coverings  of  material  which  can  be 
washed  ? 

7.  Are    the    beds    stripped    and   the    bed    coverings 
thoroughly  aired  every  morning? 

8.  If  mantel  beds  or  folding  beds  must  be  used,  are 
they  so  made  as  to  allow,  when  folded,  the  circulation 
of  air  about  the  mattress? 

///.    The  Bathroom 

1.  Has  the  bathroom  a  tiled,  oiled,  or  painted  floor, 
with  no  other  carpet  than  a  rug  which  is  often  aired  out 
of  doors? 

2.  Are  the  corners  of  the  floors  rounded,  to  secure 
ease  in  cleaning? 

3.  Are  the  walls  finished  with  tiles,  paint,  or  var- 
nished paper,  to  prevent  the  absorption  of  moisture  and 
odors  ? 

4.  Are  those  receptacles   for  dust  and  rubbish,  the 
drawers  and  cupboard  usually  connected  with  the  set  bowl, 
exchanged  for  a  wall  cupboard? 

5.  In  summer,  does  the  fly  screen  cover  the  whole 
window,  so  that  the  upper  sash'  can  be  lowered  as  well 
c.s  the  lower  one  raised? 

6.  If  the  bathroom  is  used  by  the  family  for  toilet 
purposes,  are  there  conveniences   for  keeping  the  indi- 
vidual towels,  soap,  and  brushes  separate  ? 

7.  Are  the  surfaces  of  the  fixtures  perfectly  smooth, 
so  that  they  will  not  retain  waste  matter  ? 


86  HOUSE    SANITATION 

8.  Are  fixtures  in  use  which  permit  turning  the  water 
on  without  the  use  of  the  hands? 

IV.    The  Kitchen 

1.  Is  the  kitchen  floor  either  oiled,  painted,  or  covered 
with  oilcloth,  linoleum,  or  other  impervious  covering? 

Note. — Oilcloth  carpets  must  be  fitted  closely  to  the 
wall,  in  order  that  dust  may  not  collect  under  the  edges. 
Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  washing  them,  lest 
water  run  under  the  edges. 

2.  Are  the  walls  made  proof  against  moisture  and 
odors  by  tiles,  paint,  or  varnished  paper? 

3.  Is  the  kitchen  free  from  that  nuisance,  a  closet 
under  the  sink? 

Note. — This  closet  too  often  serves  an  untidy  servant 
as  a  place  of  concealment  for  unwashed  pots  and  pans, 
soiled  rags,  etc.,  and  is  an  attractive  spot  for  water  bugs. 

4.  Is  a  large,  light,  and  airy  pantry  substituted  for 
the  several  small,  dark  cupboards  which  usually  join  the 
kitchen  ? 

5.  Is  the  sink  of  porcelain,  soapstone,  or  iron  ? 

6.  Is  the  pipe  which  conveys  the  drippings  from  the 
refrigerator  entirely  disconnected  from  the  drainage  sys- 
tem of  the  house  ? 

Note. — All  shelves,  boxes,  and  jars,  especially  refrig- 
erators, in  which  food  is  kept  should  be  kept  with  the 
most  scrupulous  care,  and  usually  only  the  "eternal  vigi- 
lance" of  the  mistress  herself  will  accomplish  this. 

7.  Is  the  artificial  light  placed  near  where  the  work 
is  done? 

8.  Is  care  taken  to  provide  separate  hand  towels? 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE  COUNTRY  HOUSE 

IN  deciding  upon  a  country  home,  the  first  considera- 
tion is  the  character  of  the  soil  and  of  the  underlying 
rock   formation,   since  the  artificial   drains  and  careful 
grading  of  the  city  engineer  are  wanting. 

If  the  soil  is  clayey,  or  has  an  impervious  clayey  layer 
a  short  distance  below  the  surface,  then  at  certain  seasons 
of  the  year  water  is  liable  to  stand  for  some  time  in  pools 
and  even  to  penetrate  to  the  cellar.  This  class  of  soils 
also  allows  surface  drainage  to  run  for  long  distances 
along  its  impervious  surface,  and  so  to  reach  wells  at 
some  distance  from  the  source  of  the  water. 

A  slaty  rock  with  joints  or  a  broken  conglomerate 
with  many  cracks  also  allows  water  to  percolate  for  long 
distances,  while  a  deep,  sandy  loam  presents  the  most 
favorable  conditions  for  two  reasons  in  particular.  First. 
The  porous  nature  of  such  soil  allows  of  quick  drainage 
of  rain  water,  so  that  the  cellar  and  surrounding  soil  may 
be  always  fairly  dry,  with  no  stagnant  water.  Second, 
Such  soil  allows  the  ready  purification  of  all  polluting 
material  which  is  buried  in  it  or  flows  through  it,  so  that 
the  outflowing  water  is  freed  from  its  former  harmful 
ingredients.  This  is  accomplished,  as  we  now  understand, 
by  an  abundance  of  plant  life  of  a  peculiar  character  in 
the  upper  layers  of  the  soil.  This  plant  life  is  most  abun- 
dant in  the  first  two  feet  and  in  sandy  loam. 

87 


88  HOU3E    SANITATION 

When  these  plants,  known  as  nitrifying  organisms, 
have  plenty  of  air,  they  convert  into  harmless  nitrates 
all  the  putrefying  nitrogenous  matter  brought  to  them ; 
but  they  cannot  do  their  beneficent  work  if  they  are 
smothered  in  water,  or  otherwise  deprived  of  air.  In  that 
case,  other  less  desirable  plants  thrive  and  work,  and 
noxious  products  may  result.  Hence  it  is  necessary,  for 
quick  and  complete  purification,  that  a  drenching  of  the 
soil  with  water  which  carries  anything  organic  and  liable 
to  decompose  (and  what  water  washing  the  surface  of 
the  ground  does  not?)  should  be  followed  by  a  period  in 
which  air,  and  not  water,  may  penetrate  to  a  considerable 
depth,  thus  furnishing  the  needed  oxygen  for  the  nitrify- 
ing plants  to  grow  and  to  free  the  water  from  its  harmful 
organic  matter. 

For  this  reason,  the  sink  spout,  so  often  seen  in 
country  farmhouses,  delivering  dirty  water  at  all  hours 
of  the  day  on  one  spot,  resulting  in  a  wet,  soggy  soil, 
should  be  moved  at  its  outlet  each  day,  so  that  a  new  area 
of  soil  may  receive  the  water  while  the  old  one  is  doing 
its  work  of  purification.  In  from  three  to  five  days, 
according  to  the  depth  of  the  sand  or  loam,  the  same  spot 
is  ready  for  another  flooding. 

Because  of  this  same  characteristic  of  the  beneficent 
plant  life,  the  leaching  cesspool  is  wrong  in  principle  when 
it  delivers  its  foul  liquid  below  the  level  at  which  the  most 
vigorous  plant  growth  occurs,  and  thus  allows  this  un- 
purified  water  to  mingle  with  the  underground  water, 
which  is  commonly  held  to  be  good  because  of  its  free- 
dom from  surface  contamination.  The  leaching  cesspool, 
carrying  filth  below  the  surface,  is  a  backward  step  from 


THE   COUNTRY    HOUSE  89 

savage  life,  which  threw  its  refuse  on  the  surface;  or 
even  from  animal  life,  for  animals  frequently  use  care 
to  scatter  earth  over  their  body  wastes,  and  thus  instinc- 
tively secure  right  sanitary  conditions.  Leaching  cess- 
pools may  be  used  without  danger  or  offense,  provided 
they  are  so  located  that,  first,  contamination  of  the  water 
supply  from  them  is  impossible;  second,  an  amount  of 
grease  which  would  interfere  with  quick  leaching  is  not 
allowed  to  run  into  them ;  third,  they  are  not  so  deep  as 
to  deliver  their  wastes  below  the  level  of  the  nitrifying 
bacteria  of  the  soil.  An  additional  precaution  is  the  use 
of  two  or  more  cesspools  in  turn,  so  that  the  ground 
shall  not  be  constantly  soaked,  but  be  supplied  with  the 
air  which  is  necessary  for  purification  of  the  wastes. 

Septic  tanks  may  well  be  used  for  the  preliminary 
treatment  of  sewage.  These  are  water-tight  receptacles 
so  constructed  that  they  retain  the  solid  particles  of  waste 
matter  long  enough  for  most  of  them  to  be  liquefied 
by  those  bacteria  which  thrive  without  air.  These  tanks 
furnish  the  most  satisfactory  means  of  sewage  disposal 
in  the  country  when  they  are  so  constructed  that  they 
empty  automatically  and  intermittently,  by  means  of  a 
syphon,  into  a  system  of  open- jointed  tile  drains  laid  just 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  When  some  spot  of 
land,  sloping  away  from  the  house  and  at  a  distance  of 
one  hundred  feet  or  more,,  can  be  found  to  which  a  large 
amount  of  water  may  be  carried  by  pipes  and  automati- 
cally distributed  to  the  advantage  of  trees  and  crops,  it 
is  possible  to  dispose  safely  of  all  house  drainage.  This 
is  the  simplest  way  of  caring  for  it,  and  is  called,  tech- 
nically, surface  or  broad  irrigation.  This  is  perfectly  safe 


9O  HOUSE    SANITATION 

and  successful  only  when  the  principles  referred  to  are 
scrupulously  followed,  namely :  first,  the  quick  disappear- 
ance of  the  water  from  the  surface  without  overdosing 
any  one  spot ;  second,  the  utilization  of  the  prepared  food 
by  growing  trees  or  crops.  The  accumulations  of  the 
winter  under  the  ice  are  quickly  disposed  of  by  the  vigor- 
ous growth  of  spring.  The  system  is  easily  and  cheaply 
constructed.  In  many  states  the  Board  of  Health  is  pre- 
pared to  give  detailed  instructions  as  to  the  best  method 
of  construction. 

It  should  be  constantly  remembered  that  the  purifying 
power  of  the  upper  layers  of  the  soil  is  enormous,  and 
should  be  utilized  by  all  country  dwellers  to  the  profit  of 
the  agricultural  crop  which  feeds  on  the  nitrates  that 
are  the  product  of  this  invisible  plant  life. 

The  earth  closet  takes  advantage  of  this  property,  and 
every  country  house  should  possess  this  means  of  sanita- 
tion, unless  it  is  provided  with  the  water-carriage  system. 
Plenty  of  absorbent  loam  can  be  brought  from  the  fields 
in  dry  weather,  and  when  further  dried  in  barn  or  shed 
can  be  used  to  absorb  the  moisture  from  the  closets  and 
chamber  slops  and  then  removed  to  the  fields  and  replaced 
by  fresh  earth.  If  iron  tanks  on  trucks  are  used,  this 
may  be  readily  done  as  often  as  necessary.  In  a  large 
country  house  this  method  necessitates  the  supplementary 
use  of  the  septic  tank  system  or  the  properly  constructed 
cesspool  for  the  disposal  of  the  liquid  wastes  from  bath- 
tubs, laundry  tubs,  and  sinks. 

Because  of  the  porosity  of  the  ground  and  the  rather 
free  circulation  of  water  below  the  surface,  wells  are 
peculiarly  liable  to  be  contaminated  when  ignorantly 


THE    COUNTRY    HOUSE  9! 

placed  in  close  juxtaposition  to  the  house  and  its  waste 
drains.  Too  great  care  cannot  be  taken  of  the  surround- 
ings for  even  a  considerable  distance.  If,  as  is  often  the 
case,  the  waste  water  from  the  well  falls  upon  the  ground 
at  its  mouth,  it  should  be  carried  away  by  a  cement  or 
other  impervious  drain.  The  mouth  of  the  well  should 
be  protected  from  any  surface  leakage ;  it  is  advisable  to 
place  a  layer  of  cement  on  the  outside  of  the  stone  or 
brick  curb,  which  should  rise  a  foot  or  two  above  the 
surface  and  extend  two  or  three  feet  below.  This  cement 
will  also  serve  to  keep  out  the  angle  worms  and  other 
small  creatures  which  are  liable  to  fall  into  the  well.  The 
well  should  never  be  used  for  cold  storage.  The  practice 
of  hanging  dressed  meat,  poultry,  and  milk  cans  in  the 
well  should  never  be  tolerated.  There  is  too  much  risk 
in  such  methods,  for  clean  drinking  water  is  becoming 
one  of  the  most  precious  possessions  of  mankind. 

Rain  water  is  used  in  a  great  many  places.  It  should 
not  be  collected  and  stored  in  cisterns  until  enough  rain 
has  fallen  to  wash  the  dust  and  other  impurities  from  the 
roof  and  surfaces  on  which  the  rain  falls.  There  are  in 
use  two  methods  for  the  distribution  of  water  through 
houses  having  a  private  supply.  The  older  method  is  to 
have  an  elevated  tank,  usually  in  the  attic.  This  is  filled 
by  a  hand  or  power  pump,  and  the  pipes  are  served  by 
gravitation.  The  more  modern  method  is  by  the  pneu- 
matic tank  located  in  the  basement,  from  which  the 
water  is  forced  over  the  house  by  means  of  compressed 
air.  The  great  advantage  of  this  kind  of  tank  is  that  it 
can  be  located  where  there  is  no  danger  of  freezing  or 
leakage,  and  where  the  cost  of  construction  is  compara- 


92  HOUSE    SANITATION 

lively  small.  In  addition,  the  water  is  delivered  at  a 
nearly  constant  temperature  the  year  around.  If  the 
water  supply  is  brought  from  a  mountain  spring  and  is 
soft,  it  should  be  conveyed  in  wooden  or  tin  pipes,  since 
such  water  is  liable  to  dissolve  lead  or  brass  pipe  to  a 
dangerous  extent. 

The  lighting  of  the  rural  home  is  a  much  simpler 
matter  now  than  it  was  some  years  ago.  With  the  estab- 
lishment of  electric  service,  country  dwellers  are  able  to 
have  the  privilege  and  convenience  of  electric  lights. 
Gasoline  gas  is  also  a  satisfactory  illuminant,  and  aside 
from  the  cost  of  piping  a  plant  need  cost  very  little. 
Acetylene,  which  is  rapidly  coming  into  favor,  furnishes 
a  clear,  steady  light,  and  may  also  be  used  for  cooking. 

In  places  where  it  is  not  the  custom  to  have  cellars, 
it  is  only  necessary  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  a  free 
circulation  of  air  under  the  house.  It  is  possible  to  live 
even  over  water,  provided  this  air  space  is  sufficient  to 
keep  the  floor  from  becoming  sodden  and  moldy  and  is 
kept  clean. 

This  lack  of  air  space  is  the  bane  of  country  buildings 
in  the  northern  United  States.  For  the  sake  of  protection 
from  freezing  in  winter,  the  house,  or  portions  of  it,  rest 
on  the  ground,  or  are  banked  up  so  that  no  circulation  of 
air  is  possible.  In  other  portions  of  the  country,  where 
this  necessity  for  warmth  does  not  exist,  this  space  is 
constantly  open,  and  rubbish  is  likely  to  accumulate 
in  it,  which  is,  of  course,  likewise  objectionable. 

Clean  spil  is  the  primary  factor  in  the  possibility  of 
securing  clean  air  and  clean  water.  If  the  house  is  on 
a  prdper  site,  which  is  kept  in  good  condition  and  has 


THE    COUNTRY    HOUSE  93 

free  circulation  of  air  and  sufficient  sunlight,  unhindered 
by  close  growing  trees,  it  only  remains  for  the  house- 
keeper to  carry  out  the  suggestions  made  in  the  other 
chapters  to  secure  conditions  conducive  to  the  health 
of  the  family.  It  is  ignorance  of  sanitary  principles  which 
causes  the  deplorable  state  of  affairs  often  found  in  the 
country,  and  which  not  infrequently  makes  the  country 
a  much  less  healthful  place  to  live  in  than  the  city. 

QUESTIONS 

If  the  house  has  not  the  water-carriage  system, — 

1.  Are  earth  closets,  ash  closets,  the  pail  system,  or 
some    method    of    frequent    removal    and    disinfection, 
adopted  ? 

2.  If  not,  is  the  receptacle  of  the  privy  cemented,  to 
prevent  leakage  and  soakage,  and  to  permit  the  complete 
removal  of  its  contents? 

3.  Is  the  receptacle  accessible  from  outside  the  house  ? 

4.  Is   the   closet   separated    from   living   rooms   and 
sleeping  rooms  by  a  ventilated  passageway  protected  from 
storm  and  cold  ? 

5.  Is  a  box  of  dried  and  sifted  loam  placed  near,  and 
enough  thrown  in  after  each  use  to  keep  the  contents  dry? 

Note. — Gravel  and  sand  are  useless  for  disinfection. 

6.  Is  a  separate  receptacle  and  drain  provided   for 
slops  and  other  fluid  wastes? 

Note. — The  efficacy  of  earth  depends  on  its  deodoriz- 
ing and  absorbing  properties,  which  exist  only  when  it 
is  dry;  as  well  as  upon  the  action  of  the  nitrifying  bac- 
teria present,  which  cannot  do  their  work  if  the  earth 


94  HOUSE    SANITATION 

is  saturated  constantly  with  water;  hence,  if  slop  water 
is  poured  into  the  receptacle,  a  larger  amount  of  earth  is 
needed  to  absorb  it  and  to  promote  decomposition  than 
can  be  conveniently  used. 

7.  Are  you  careful  not  to  throw  slop  water  frequently 
on  the  same  spot  of  ground  near  the  house  ? 

If  leaching  cesspools  are  used, — 

8.  Is  there  absolutely  no  danger  of  contaminating  the 
water  supply?  / 

9.  Is  there  more  than  one,  so  that  the  action  may  be 
intermittent  ? 

10.  Are  they  so  shallow  that  the  contents  are  delivered  i 
near  the  surface  of  the  soil,  i.  e.,  within  one  foot,  where 
the  nitrifying  organisms  live  in  greatest  numbers? 

11.  Are  you  careful  not  to  allow  much  grease  to  run 
into  the  cesspool  ? 

If  a  septic  tank  is  used, — 

12.  Is  it  emptied    (a)   by  a  flush  tank  through  an 
impervious  pipe  into  a  series  of  earthen  or  tile  drains 
with  open  joints, .  and  its  contents   discharged  into  the 
ground  a  short  distance  below  the  surface?    Or  (&),  are 
its   contents    carried   through    an    impervious   pipe    and 
emptied  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  at  a  distance  from 
the  house  or  a  source  of  water  supply?  and  is  the  position 
of  the  outlet  of  the  pipe  occasionally  changed  ? 

Note. — (See  a.)  Flush  tanks  are  self -emptying,  tight 
receptacles  which  receive  the  liquefied  sewage  from  the 
septic  tank.  They  are  made  automatic  in  various  ways, 
and  are  thus  emptied  intermittently.  By  this  action  the 
liquid  is  forced  more  rapidly  through  the  pipes  and  they 
are  prevented  from  being  choked.  The  sewage  is  also 


THE    COUNTRY    HOUSE  95 

more  widely  distributed  and  has  time  to  subside,  instead 
of  keeping  the  ground  a  little  wet  all  the  time ;  the  air 
can  then  enter,  and  in  the  aerated  soil  the  bacteria  can 
do  their  work  of  purifying  the  sewage  and  rendering  it 
harmless  and  inoffensive. 

13.  If  the  house  is  in  a  village  lot  which  is  too  small 
to  permit  of  any  of  the  preceding  arrangements,  is  a 
barrel  closet  or  some  other  form  of  small,  water-tight 
receptacle  provided  and  its  contents  regularly  removed  to 
a  place  where  they  can  be  absorbed  by  the  soil  without 
offense  ? 

14.  Is  the  kitchen  sink  furnished  with  a  tight  drain 
which  will  carry  the  drainage  away  from  the  house,  in- 
stead of  depositing  it  under  the  windows  to  decompose 
and   act  as   an   important    factor   in   the   production  of 
disease  ? 

15.  Is  the  end  of  the  drain  next  the  house  connected 
with  the  kitchen  sink  by  a  lead  pipe  with  a  trap  ? 

16.  Is  the  kitchen  fire  often  made  use  of  and  con- 
sidered an  effective  and  economical  way  of  disposing  of 
articles  which  might  otherwise  be  offensive  ? 

17.  Is  every  receptacle  for  waste  food  and  sewage, 
earth  closets,  cesspools,  etc.,  screened  so  that  no  flies  have 
access  to  their  contents? 

1 8.  Are  you  careful  to  prevent  rain  water  from  run- 
ning into  the  cistern  until  after  the  roof  has  been  washed  ? 

19.  Are  cisterns  and  wells  so  constructed  that  con- 
tamination is  impossible  ? 

20.  Are  facilities  provided  so  that  the  members  of  the 
family  will  not  have  to  use  the  kitchen  sink  for  toilet 
purposes  ? 


CHAPTER  X 
HOUSEHOLD  CONTROL  OF  INFECTION 

T  N  the  previous  chapters  it  has  been  pointed  out  that 
-*-  sewers,  plumbing,  garbage,  night  air,  damp  cellars, 
carbonic  acid,  odors,  and  dust  have  in  large  measure  if 
not  wholly  lost  their  terrors,  since  they  are  now  known 
not  to  be  the  cause  of  disease.  The  housewife  may 
possibly  ask  if  there  are  left  any  matters  of  sanitary 
significance.  The  answer  to  this  question  involves  the 
consideration  of  several  aspects  of  the  new  sanitation 
which  have  a  bearing  on  the  house  and  its  provisions  for 
proper  living. 

After  the  germ  theory  of  disease  was  accepted,  there 
seemed  to  be  evidence  that  many  diseases  were  air-borne, 
that  disease  germs  lived  for  long  periods  of  time  in 
clothing  and  articles  used  by  infected  persons,  and  that 
sewer  gas  was  a  carrier  of  many  diseases,  such  as  typhoid 
fever  and  diphtheria.  We  know  now,  however,  that  the 
air  of  sewers,  especially  if  well  ventilated,  contains  very 
few  bacteria  of  any  kind.  The  contact  of  the  air  with 
the  wet  surfaces  in  the  sewer  frees  it  from  so  many 
bacteria  that  it  usually  contains  fewer  than  ordinary  air 
does.  We  know,  too,  that  the  danger  from  air-borne 
diseases  and  from  fomites,  i.  e.,  infected  objects  which 
retain  the  infection  for  some  time,  is  much  less  than  was 
formerly  thought. 

96 


HOUSEHOLD    CONTROL   OF    INFECTION  97 

Pathogenic  or  disease-producing  bacteria  live  and 
reproduce  within  the  bodies  of  men  and  animals,  and  out- 
side of  their  normal  habitat  lose  their  virulence  and  die 
more  or  less  quickly,  very  few  of  them  reproducing 
outside  of  the  body.  As  Dr.  C.  V.  Chapin  says :  "We  can 
now  see  that  persons  in  whom  the  germs  are  growing 
are  much  more  likely  to  be  the  agents  of  infection 
than  are  the  things  on  which  the  germs  are  dying." 

Cases  of  infectious  disease  are  grouped  into  three 
classes,  viz. :  known  or  recognized  cases,  missed  cases 
(mild,  unrecognized,  early,  and  convalescing  cases),  and 
"carriers"  (infected  persons  capable  of  infecting  others 
but  not  showing  any  symptoms  themselves  or  made  ill  by 
the  disease  germs  they  harbor).  The  bacteria  pass  from 
the  bodies  of  these  infected  persons  in  the  various  ex- 
cretions from  the  nose,  mouth,  bladder,  and  bowels,  and 
the  greatest  care  should  therefore  be  taken  to  prevent  the 
exchange  of  body  discharges  from  person  to  person. 
Such  exchange  may  take  place  through  water,  food,  in- 
sects, or  milk,  the  so-called  "public  routes"  of  infection, 
or  by  contact,  the  infection  which  proceeds  directly  from 
the  infected  person,  the  so-called  "private  route." 

The  new  house  sanitation  teaches  that  the  person  in 
the  house,  not  the  house  itself,  is  the  source  of  danger 
from  infection,  and  it  therefore  implies  control  over  all 
means  of  conveying  disease  from  one  person  to  another. 
These  means  practically  resolve  themselves  into  one 
general  principle,  *.  <?.,  the  control  of  all  body  discharges. 
The  general  measures  to  be  followed  with  special  refer- 
ence to  house  sanitation  may  be  briefly  indicated. 

All   waste   matters   from  the  body  must  be   rapidly 


98  HOUSE    SANITATION 

and  completely  removed.  Habits  of  personal  cleanliness 
are  of  fundamental  importance,  and  every  facility  should 
be  available  for  aiding  in  establishing  and  maintaining 
them.  There  should  be  training  in  early  childhood  to 
use  individual  toilet  articles — soap,  towels,  brushes,  and 
handkerchiefs — and  not  to  exchange  them  with  other 
persons.  Children  should  also  be  taught  to  keep  their 
mouths  clean,  to  avoid  the  use  of  common  public  drink- 
ing cups,  to  wash  the  hands  frequently,  and  especially 
to  wash  them  well  each  time  after  using  the  toilet.  The 
task  of  keeping  clean  is  a  difficult  one  at  best,  and  it  is 
the  part  of  house  sanitation  to  make  it  as  easy  as  possi- 
ble by  the  provision  of  generous  facilities  for  bathing 
and  washing.  An  abundant  supply  of  water,  both  hot 
and  cold,  should  be  provided  at  convenient  points  in  the 
house,  especially  near  the  toilet. 

Special  precautions  should  be  taken  to  make  sure 
that  all  persons  within  the  house  who  have  any  part  in 
the  preparing  or  handling  of  food  not  only  are  not  suffer- 
ing from  any  infectious  disease,  but  are  not  "carriers." 
Tests  of  a  practical  nature  can  now  be  made  by  physicians 
for  such  diseases  as  typhoid  fever  and  diphtheria,  which 
are  apt  to  remain  unrecognized.  In  order  to  reduce  the 
risk  in  connection  with  food,  all  persons  in  the  house  who 
handle  it  should  be  instructed  in  matters  of  personal 
cleanliness.  Facilities  for  washing  hands  should  be  pro- 
vided so  that  the  kitchen  and  pantry  sink  need  not  be 
used  for  this  purpose.  Such  utensils  as  forks  and  spoons 
should  not  be  used  by  different  people  without  careful 
washing.  Dishes  washed  in  clean,  soapy  water  and  rinsed 
in  plenty  of  scalding  water  have  been  found  to  be  prac- 


HOUSEHOLD    CONTROL   OF    INFECTION  99 

tically  free  from  germs.  Of  course  they  must  be  allowed 
to  dry  without  the  use  of  a  towel,  that  bane  of  the  careful 
housewife. 

It  is  known  that  diseases  may  be  carried  and  trans- 
mitted by  insects.  So  far  as  is  known,  the  common 
house  fly  carries  bacteria  from  body  discharges  mechan- 
ically; that  is,  it  does  not  seem  subject  to  any  of  the 
diseases  man  is  subject  to,  but  carries  on  its  feet  and 
body  infectious  material  from  open  cesspools  and  privies 
directly  to  food  stuffs.  Public  attention  has  been  called 
of  late  in  many  striking  ways  to  the  importance  of  the 
fly  as  a  factor  in  disease,  but  there  is  danger  lest  the  real 
significance  of  the  fly  nuisance  be  misinterpreted  and 
people  repeat  some  of  the  errors  of  the  past  and  be- 
lieve that  if  they  are  simply  busy  killing  flies — action, 
action,  swatting,  swatting — they  will  accomplish  sanitary 
marvels.  The  truth  is  that  the  fly  itself,  although  very 
annoying  and  disagreeable,  cannot  cause  typhoid  fever 
or  any  other  disease.  The  presence  of  the  fly  does  not 
necessarily  mean  danger  from  disease.  Flies  multiply 
with  enormous  rapidity  wherever  they  have  access  to 
garbage,  manure,  or  filth  of  various  kinds.  It  seems  in- 
deed to  be  their  function  to  help  dispose  of  such  matter. 
The  presence  of  the  fly  means,  then,  that  the  environment 
is  not  clean.  In  order  to  play  any  role  in  causing  disease, 
conditions  must  be  such  that  the  fly  can  carry  thejpac- 
teria  of  disease  from  the  body  discharges  of  one  person 
and,  by  depositing  them  on  food  or  drink  or  dishes,  cause 
these  bacteria  to  gain  entrance  into  the  body  of  another 
person.  Manifestly,  killing  flies  is  not  a  way  of  getting 
at  the  root  of  the  trouble  at  all.  A  small  proportion  of 


IOO  HOUSE    SANITATION 

the  effort  now  expended  in  encouraging  people  to  kill 
flies,  if  devoted  to  training  them  to  demand  effective 
scavenging,  would  be  much  more  likely  to  accomplish  the 
end  sought.  Garbage  and  food  supplies  should  be  kept 
covered,  refuse  in  markets  and  streets  should  be  promptly 
cleared  away,  stable  manure  should  be  removed  fre- 
quently and  always  be  screened  from  flies,  and,  above  all, 
places  where  body  discharges  are  placed  should  be  abso- 
lutely fly-proof.  Toilets  should  have  screened  windows 
and  spring ._do_ors.  If  it  is  not  possible  to  abolish  the 
vault,  it  should  be  built  so  as  to  be  tightly  screened 
against  flies  and  insects  of  all  kinds. 

Mosquitoes  are  carriers  in  a  different  way.  One  kind 
is  subject  to  infection  with  the  organism  which  causes 
malaria,  and  another  kind  with  that  of  yellow  fever.  In 
each  case  the  mosquito  passes  on  the  infecting  organism 
to  the  person  bitten.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  in  dis- 
tricts infested  with  either  kind  of  mosquito  to  have 
the  house  and  especially  the  rooms  used  at  night  well 
screened. 

Ticks,  fleas,  bedbugs,  rats,  and  mice  are  all  capable 
of  carrying  disease  germs,  and  should  not  be  tolerated 
in  a  house.  Cats  and  dogs  are  subject  to  many  of  the 
diseases  from  which  human  beings  suffer.  The  danger 
from  infection,  however,  is  not  very  great,  and,  if  the 
animals  are  healthy  and  kept  reasonably  clean,  the  advan- 
tages of  having  them  as  pets,  so  far  as  our  present 
knowledge  indicates,  outweigh  the  remote  chance  of 
their  proving  to  be  a  source  of  infection. 

Because  of  the  general  lack  of  knowledge  on  these 
points,  there  is  a  striking  difference  between  the  rates 


HOUSEHOL       C<>l^T£o;G£ltoj£T0y,  IOI 


at  which  theory  and  practice  are  advancing  in  the  matter 
of  disinfection.  A  review  recently  made  of  the  meth- 
ods of  disinfection  employed  in  twenty-nine  large  cities 
showed  clearly  that  there  is  no  assurance  that  disease 
organisms  are  destroyed  by  ordinary  house  disinfection. 
Several  members  of  a  French  medical  society  have 
claimed  that  disinfection  as  carried  out  in  Paris  has  been 
wholly  ineffectual  in  checking  the  spread  of  scarlet  fever, 
diphtheria,  and  measles.  It  is  stated  that  emphasis 
wrongly  placed  on  disinfection  tends  to  draw  attention 
away  from  the  mild  cases  and  from  the  carriers  who  are 
the  chief  factors  in  the  spread  of  the  common  contagious 
diseases. 

The  practice  of  "terminal  disinfection,"  or  the  dis- 
infection of  rooms  and  their  contents  in  general  after 
cases  of  diphtheria  and  scarlet  fever,  was  discontinued 
in  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  recent  years;  and  the 
results,  judging  by  the  number  of  recurrences  in  that  city 
since  that  time,  indicate  that  terminal  disinfection  is  of 
no  appreciable  value.  In  other  places,  disinfection  after 
measles  and  cerebro-spinal  meningitis  has  been  without 
effect  in  checking  these  diseases. 

There  are  many  factors  involved  in  accomplishing 
the  destruction  of  germs,  such  as  the  amount  of  disin- 
fectant used,  the  amount  of  time  spent  in  the  process, 
the  humidity,  leakage,  wind,  and  rapidity  of  evolution 
of  the  gas  used.  One  need  only  remember  these  facts  to 
see  that  almost  any  result  or  even  no  result  at  all  may 
be  obtained  from  ordinary  or  even  fairly  skillful  attempts 
at  disinfection.  It  has  been  truly  said  that  "present  con- 
ditions and  practices  are  farcical." 


IO2  ^ITOySE  ^SANITATION 

Attention  should,  of  course,  be  directed  to  the  actual 
infective  material,  and  this  means  constant,  scrupulous 
attention  to  the  cleanliness  of  the  patient  and  of  the 
objects  with  which  he  comes  in  immediate  contact.  This 
attention  should  be  given  during  the  progress  of  the 
disease,  not  afterwards.  Soap  and  water  should  be  used 
every  day  in  abundance.  All  bed  linen  and  everything 
in  use  by  the  sick  person  should  be  kept  thoroughly  clean. 
Boiling  is  the  best  means  of  accomplishing  this  result. 
Free  exposure  to  direct  sunlight  is  likewise  effective. 
Dr.  Porter,  the  health  officer  of  Florida,  after  declaring 
that  if  such  processes  of  daily  cleansing  are  carried  out 
when  the  patient  gets  well  the  house  will  be  clean,  goes 
on  to  say:  "Then,  if  it  will  give  you  a  little  comfort,  or 
if  it  will  appease  the  neighbors,  or  if  for  any  other  good 
reason  you  wish  to  do  it  as  a  sort  of  celebration  of  the 
termination  of  the  disease,  burn  a  little  sulphur  or  use  a 
little  formalin,  saying  at  the  same  time  whatever  little 
incantation  you  like  best ;  but,  above  all  things,  don't  rely 
on  the  sulphur  or  incantation,  but  upon  keeping  things 
clean." 

Of  course,  there  are  many  kinds  of  infected  material 
which  may  properly  be  destroyed.  This  may  be  by  fire 
(burning),  as  in  the  case  of  worthless  clothing  or  maga- 
zines, or  by  strong  chemicals,  like  chloride  of  lime,  as 
with  body  discharges.  Disinfection  and  destruction  here 
are  synonymous,  and  they  are  the  only  household  proc- 
esses on  which  complete  reliance  may  be  placed  for  re- 
moving danger  from  infection.  The  use  of  deodorants 
is  valueless  in  this  regard.  It  is  indeed  a  tacit  avowal 
that  cleanliness  is  not  maintained. 


HOUSEHOLD    CO^TRO^  ;OT> J  INpEGl I- »  IO$ 

In  "The  New  Public  Health,"  by  Dr.  H.  W.  Hill, 
the  following  rules  prepared  for  use  in  the  public  schools 
are  quoted.  They  indicate  not  only  the  main  points  to  be 
taught  concerning  protection  from  infectious  diseases 
in  the  schools,  but  also  pretty  closely  what  can  be  done  in 
the  home. 

The  germs  of  infectious  diseases  are  in  the  discharges  of 
infectious  persons.  Infectious  diseases  are  caught  from  infec- 
tious persons  simply  by  taking  into  the  mouth  some  portion, 
usually  very  small,  of  their  infected  discharges. 

1.  Exclude  from  school  all  infectious  persons,  thus  exclud- 
ing all  infectious  discharges. 

2.  Since  infectious  persons  may  enter  school  at  times  despite 
the  greatest  vigilance,  restrict,  so  far  as  possible,  the  scattering 
of  any  discharge  of  any  person  at  any  time  in  school.    (This  will 
also  train  the  children  to  restrict  their  discharges  out  of  school 
and  in  after  life.) 

a.  Mouth  discharges  are  transferred  directly  to  and  taken 
directly    from    drinking    cups,    towels,    pencils,    chewing    gum, 
whistles,   etc.    Mouth,  nose,  bladder,  and  bowel   discharges   are 
transferred   directly  to   hands   many  times   daily.    Hands   go   to 
mouths  many  times  daily;  therefore, — 

Provide  individual  drinking  cups,  individual  towels,  individual 
pencils,  individual  modeling  clay,  etc.  There  should  be  a  sign  in 
every  school,  "Wash  your  hands  after  every  visit  to  a  closet." 

b.  Sputum   (spit)   or  other  discharges,  deposited  on  floors, 
sidewalks,  etc.,  are  picked  up  by  shoes  and  so  carried  into  homes. 
When  handling  shoes    (putting  on,  taking  off,  etc.),  discharges 
are  transferred  to  hands,  which  go  to  mouths,  or  touch  things 
that  go  to  mouths ;  therefore, — 

Avoid  depositing  discharges — sputum,  etc. — on  floors,  side- 
walks, or  elsewhere,  where  other  people  may  step  on  them. 

c.  Mouth  spray  is  thrown  out  in  talking,  singing,  coughing, 
sneezing,  etc. ;  therefore, — 


104  /•,   ]  \  »°\ 

Avoid  throwing  mouth  spray  into  other  people's  faces  by 
avoiding  close  face-to-face  conversations,  recitations,  singing 
exercises,  etc.  Cough,  sneeze,  etc.,  into  a  handkerchief  always. 

d.  The  air  of  a  schoolroom  in  use  necessarily  receives  mouth 
spray  into  it  in  talking,  reciting,  etc. 

e.  Bladder  and  bowel  discharges  are  carried  by  flies  when 
flies  can  get  at  them.    During  early  autumn  and  late  spring  or 
summer  sessions,  flies  may  carry  these  discharges  from  toilets  to 
children's  lunches,  etc. ;  therefore, — 

Make  toilet  vaults  fly-proof.  Provide  springs  or  weights  to 
automatically  close  toilet  doors,  and  fly  screens  for  toilet  windows. 

/.  Three  things  destroy  comfort  and  success  in  school  work : 
Temperature  too  high;  atmosphere  too  dry;  air  not  in  motion. 
Also,  no  child  can  work  well  in  a  poorly  lighted  room;  but  do 
not  imagine  that  good  lighting,  good  heating,  and  good  ventila- 
tion will  prevent  spread  of  infection  if  infectious  persons  gain 
entrance.  No  school  is  a  sanitary  school  if  the  children  exchange 
their  discharges  without  restriction;  but  only  those  schools 
where  infectious  persons  are  watched  for  and  excluded  are  safe 
schools ;  therefore, — 

Note  daily  the  general  state  of  health  of  each  child.  No 
child  who  shows  any  decided  change  from  the  usual  for  that 
child,  especially  fever,  headache,  sore  throat,  stomachache,  or 
general  dumpishness,  should  attend  school  until  seen  by  a  physi- 
cian. This  rule  permits  early  detection  of  infectious  children. 
It  also  excludes  children  who  should  be  excluded  for  their  own 
good,  even  if  non-infectious. 

g.  Children  showing  defective  vision,  hearing,  breathing, 
etc.,  should  be  referred  to  the  principal,  superintendent,  or  school 
board  for  action. 

The  picture  which  has  been  drawn  in  the  preceding 
pages  has  dark  shadows  of  uncertainty,  of  positive  error, 
of  danger,  but  the  reader  must  see  the  light  in  it  as  well. 
Day  by  day,  through  the  devotion  and  skill  of  scientific 


HOUSEHOLD    CONTROL   OF    INFECTION  IO5 

men  and  women  the  world  over,  mankind  is  learning  to 
understand  the  various  infectious  diseases  and,  what  is 
still  more  encouraging,  to  control  them  and  to  fortify 
himself  against  them.  The  part  which  women  in  the 
household  have  to  play  in  using  this  knowledge  is  steadily 
increasing  in  importance  and  in  happy  results. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Is  each  member  of  the  household  provided  with 
individual  toilet  articles,  soap,  towels,  brushes,  etc.? 

2.  Are  toothbrushes  kept  separate  from  each  other 
and  not  put  in  a  common  mug  ? 

3.  Are  the  children  trained  early  to  brush  their  teeth 
night  and  morning  and  to  keep  their  mouths  clean? 

4.  Are  the  children  taught  not  to  use  the  clothing 
and  especially  the  handkerchiefs  of  other  people? 

5.  Is  there  a  washstand  with  running  water,  both 
hot  and  colei,  in  every  bedroom? 

6.  Has  each  member  of  the  household,  including  the 
employees,  access  to  a  bathtub  with  plenty  of  hot  and 
cold  water? 

7.  Is  each  person  careful  to  scrub  the  bathtub  thor- 
oughly every  time  after  using  it? 

8.  Is  each  member  of  the  household  provided  with 
a  separate  bed  ? 

9.  Is  the  linen  always  changed  when  a  person  other 
than  the  usual  occupant  is  to  use  a  bed  ? 

10.  Are  the  children  and  babies  shielded  from  people 
who  would  kiss  them  on  the  mouth? 

11.  Are  the  hands  of  each  member  of  the  household 
thoroughly  washed  before  each  meal  ? 


IO6  ....     .        HOUSE    SANITATION 

12.  Are  there  facilities  for  washing  the  hands  so  that 
the  kitchen  sink  need  not  be  used  for  the  purpose? 

13.  Are  the  persons  who  handle  and  prepare  the  food 
and  dishes  of  the  household  known  to  be  free  from  in- 
fectious disease,  including  colds? 

14.  Are  they,  as  well  as  every  member  of  the  family, 
careful  to  wash  their  hands  after  using  the  toilet? 

15.  Are  the  dishes  washed  in  plenty  of  clean,  soapy, 
hot  water  and  rinsed  with  much  clean,  scalding  water? 

1 6.  Is  care  taken  to  prevent  two  persons  from  using 
the   same  dishes,    forks,   spoons,   etc.,   without   washing 
between  times  ? 

17.  Are  the  hands  not  only  washed  but  disinfected 
each  time  after  caring  for  or  handling  any  person  ill  of 
an  infectious  disease? 

18.  Are  all  places  for  the  deposit  of  excretions,  as 
privies  and  cesspools,  screened  to  exclude  flies  ? 

19.  Are  the  pet  animals  of  the  household  known  to 
be  clean  and  healthy  ? 

20.  Are  the  children  taught  not  to  kiss  animals  nor 
to    allow    themselves    to  be    licked    by   the    tongues    of 
animals  ? 


CHAPTER  XI 
CONCLUSION 

by  one,  until  the  number  is  now  very  consider- 
able,  diseases  have  been  proved  to  be  infectious, 
and  the  end  is  not  in  sight.  There  seems  to  be  little 
doubt,  however,  but  that  many  disorders  of  the  nervous, 
circulatory,  and  digestive  systems  will  always  have  to  be 
considered  on  a  different  basis.  They  are  none  the  less 
important,  and  house  sanitation  will  fail  in  its  proper 
function  of  maintaining  health  if  it  ignores  them. 

It  is  naturally  beyond  the  scope  of  this  book  to  enter 
into  any  discussion  of  pathology  or  therapeutics.  There 
is,  moreover,  too  much  uncertainty  as  to  what  the  effects 
of  environment  ajj  and  in  what  "vitality,"  or  resistance 
to  disease,  consists  to  make  many  dogmatic  statements 
concerning  the  relations  between  housing  or  habits  of 
living  and  health.  But,  although  sc^ice  may  as  yet  fail 
to  give  explanation  or  proof,  experience  leads  us  to  think 
that  certain  principles  in  regard  to  living  are  essential 
to  health.  That  house  cannot  be  truly  called  sanitary 
which  does  not  make  provision  for  carrying  out  these 
principles.  Several  of  these  have  been  enumerated  in 
previous  chapters.  In  addition,  the  following  may  be 
briefly  indicated : 

Accommodations  for  quiet,  comfortable  sleep  in  cool, 
fresh  air. 

Wholesome,  nourishing,  and  attractive  food  at  regu- 
m  107 


IO8  HOUSE   SANITATION 

lar  intervals,  served  in  a  pleasant  environment  and  with 
agreeable  company. 

Opportunity  for  rest,  quiet,  and  privacy  when  needed. 

Facilities  for  exercise,  recreation,  and  interesting 
occupation. 

Standards  of  pure  and  moral  living. 

Such  conditions  will  undoubtedly  contribute  to  the 
upbuilding  of  sound  bodies. 

A  still  more  important  factor  may  be  mentioned, 
although  it  has  to  do  with  that  subtle  and  mysterious 
problem,  the  effect  of  the  mind  on  the  body.  It  may  be 
safely  said  that  all  the  suggestions  which  have  been  made 
in  the  preceding  pages  may  be  conscientiously  and  sedu- 
lously carried  out  and  yet  the  result  may  be  quite  unsatis- 
factory. The  very  concern  of  the  housewife  to  secure 
health  for  those  in  her  keeping  may  lead  her  to  place  too 
much  stress  on  the  machinery  she  employs,  and  thereby 
unduly  to  call  the  attention  of  her^household  to  the 
dangers  from  disease  and  to  keep  them  in  a  constant  state 
of  mental  anxiety  as  well  as  of  bodily  and  spiritual  dis- 
comfort. It  may  b^iifficult  to  decide  where  to  draw  the 
line,  but  mental  impressions  are  so  vivid  and.  react  so 
seriously  on  the  body  that  it  seems  wise  to  keep  an  atmos- 
phere of  health  rather  than  of  disease  about  the  house- 
hold. Children  may  be  trained  in  right  living  and  may  be 
taught  cleanly  habits  so  that  they  will  become  automatic, 
without  arousing  their  fears  and  shocking  their  nerves 
by  giving  them  too  minute  particulars  as  to  the  reasons 
or  explanations  better  suited  to  the  expert  ^sanitarian  or 
pathologist. 

Such  conditions  as  these  prove  that,  as  has  already 

f 


CONCLUSION  IO9 

been  pointed  out,  the  housekeeper  has  an  opportunity  for 
exercising  large  functions,  which  need  not  only  wide 
knowledge  but  keen  insight,  power  of  discrimination,  and 
sound  judgment. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The  New  Public  Health.  Minnesota  State  Board  of 
Health,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota. 

Manual  of  Practical  Hygiene.  4th  ed.,  rev.  and  enl.  by 
M.  W.  Richardson.  Charles  Harrington.  Philadel- 
phia :  Lea  &  Febiger. 

Principles  of  Sanitary  Science  and  the  Public  Health. 
W.  T.  Sedgwick.  New  York :  The  Macmillan  Co. 

The  Sources  and  Modes  of  Infection.  Charles  V.  Chapin. 
New  York:  John  Wiley  &  Sons. 

Manual  of  Hygiene  and  Sanitation.  Seneca  Egbert. 
Philadelphia:  Lea  &  Febiger. 

Lessons  in  Practical  Hygiene.  Alice  Ravenhill.  Leeds : 
E.  J.  Arnold  &  Son. 

Municipal  Sanitation  in  the  United  States.  Charles  V. 
Chapin.  Providence,  Rhode  Island:  Snow  &  Farn- 
ham. 

'Dust   and   Its   Dangers.    T.    M.    Prudden.    New   York: 
G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 

Bacteria,  Yeasts  and  Molds  in  the  Home.  H.  W.  Conn. 
Boston:  Ginn  &  Co. 

General  Bacteriology.  E.  O.  Jordan.  Philadelphia:  W. 
B.  Saunders  Company. 

Library  of  Home  Economics.  Household  Bacteriology, 
S.  M.  Elliott.  Household  Hygiene,  S.  M.  Elliott. 
Household  Management,  Bertha  M.  Terrill.  Per- 
sonal Hygiene,  Maurice  Le  Bosquet.  Chicago: 
American  School  of  Home  Economics, 
no 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  III 

The  Care  of  a  House.  T.  M.  Clark.  New  York:  The 
Macmillan  Co. 

Plumbing  and  Household  Sanitation.  John  Pickering 
Putnam.  New  York:  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

Standard  Practical  Plumbing.  Robert  Macy  Starbuck. 
New  York :  Henley  &  Co. 

Sanitary  Engineering  of  Buildings.  William  Paul  Ger- 
hard. New  York:  William  T.  Comstock. 

Guide  to  Sanitary  Inspections.  William  Paul  Gerhard. 
New  York:  J.  Wiley  &  Sons. 

Air  and  Health.  Ronald  C.  Macfie.  New  York:  E.  P. 
Button  &  Co. 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Ex- 
periment Stations.  Bulletin  175,  pp.  237-261.  Wash- 
ington, District  of  Columbia. 

Microbiology.  Charles  E.  Marshall.  Philadelphia:  P. 
Blakiston,  Son  &  Co. 

Rural  Hygiene.  Henry  N.  Ogden.  New  York:  The 
Macmillan  Co. 

University  of  Missouri.  Engineering  Experiment  Sta- 
tion. Bulletins  i,  2,  and  3.  Columbia,  Missouri. 

The  House  Fly,  Disease  Carrier.    Leland  O.  Howard.  - 
New  York :  F.  A.  Stokes  Co. 

The  Human  Mechanism.  Theodore  Hough  and  W.  T. 
Sedgwick.  Boston :  Ginn  &  Co. 

The  Cost  of  Cleanness.  E.  H.  Richards.  New  York: 
John  Wiley  &  Sons. 

Euthenics.  Ellen  H.  Richards.  Boston:  Whitcomb  & 
Barrows. 

The  Efficient  Life.    L.  H.  Gulick.    New  York:  Double-  - 
day,  Page  &  Co. 


112  HOUSE    SANITATION 

The  following  are  references  to  periodical  literature : 
Science,  June  2,  1911.    Profitable  and  Fruitless  Lines  of 

Endeavor  in  Public  Health  Work,  by  E.  O.  Jordan. 
Archives  of  Internal  Medicine,  January,  1911.    A  Study 

of  the  Ventilation  of  Sleeping  Cars   (containing  a 

summary  of  facts  concerning  ventilation),  by  T.  C. 

Crowder. 
Journal  of  Medical  Research,  September,  1911.    Organic 

Matter  in  Expired  Breath,  by  Rosenau  and  Amoss. 
Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Association,  January  20, 

1912.    On  What  Do  the  Hygienic  and  Therapeutic 

Virtues  of  the  Open  Air  Depend?  by  Henry  Sewall. 
Journal  of  Physiology,  No.  41,  p.  3.    Influence  of  Heat 

and  Chemical  Impurities  of  Close  Air,  by  Leonard 

Hill. 
National  Association  of  Master  Plumbers  of  the  United 

States.    Report  of  the  Sanitary  Committee  for  1907- 

08-09. 
American  Medicine,  April,   1907.    Actinophysiology  and 

Actinotherapy,  by  Charles  F.  Woodruff,  M.D. 
American  Journal  of  Public  Hygiene,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  340 

and  367. 
Journal   of    the   American   Public    Health   Association, 

Vol.  I,  p.  32. 

American  Journal  of  Public  Health. 
Florida  Health  Notes.     Dr.  Joseph  Y.  Porter.     Health 

Bulletins  of  various  states  and  cities. 


INDEX 


Acetylene,  92 
Agencies,  sanitary,  8 
Air,   18,   19,  42—56,  92 

change  of,   19 

circulation  of,    18,   19,  92,   93 

ground,   14,   15,  16 

night,   15,  47 

pure,   n,    14,  45 

variations  in,  7 

vitiation  of,  72 
Anaphylaxis,  44 
Apparatus,  heating,  18,  58  et  seq. 

water  supply,   19 
Artificial  light,  71,  76 

Bacteria,  80,  93,  96,  97,  99 

Bacteriology,  4 

Basements,   17 

Bathroom,   85 

Beds,  85 

Beauty,  standard  of,  79,  81 

Board  of  Health,  9,  10,  28 

Body  discharges,  97,  99,  103 

Breathing  zone,  6,  43 

Burners,  75 

Burnt  air,  62 

Candles,  71,  72 

Capillary  attraction,  31,  38 

Carbon  dioxide,  7,   15,  43,  44 

monoxide,  44,  48,  62 
Carpets,  82,  84 
Carriers,  97,  98,  101 
Cast  iron,  objections  to,  62 
Ceilings,  82 

Cellar,  15,  16,  18,  19,  20,  87 
Central  heating  plant,  58 
Cesspool,  88,  89 
Chadwick,  Sir  Edwin,  3 
Chapin,  Dr.  C.  V.,  5,  97 
Chimneys,  52 
Cisterns,  91 
Clergy,  attitude  of,  4 


Closet,  earth,  90 

essentials  of  sanitary,  33 

types  of,  33 

Cold-air  box,  18,  62,  64 
Combustion,  71,  75 
Conduction,  45 
Conservation,    i 
Construction,  13,  18 
Contamination,  chemical,  of 

air,  45 

Convection,  45 
Crowder,   Dr.  T.  R.,  49 
Curtains,  83,  84 

Dampness,   14,   16,   17 
Danger,  sources  of,  n 
Darkness,   14,   17 
Decay,  14,  15,  81 
Deodorants,    102 
Diffused  light,  68,  72 
Digestion,  45 
Diphtheria,  96,  98 
Disease  and  uncleanliness,  3 

causation  of,  2,  3 

control  of,  4,  5 

germ  theory  of,  24 

methods  of  cure,  2 
Discharges,  body,  97 
Disinfection,   7,   68,   101,   102 
Display,   79 

Disposal  of  sewage,  33 
Drains,  defective,   15,  51 
Drinking  cup,  98 
Dryness,   14 
Dust,    1 8,  80 
Dusts,  44,  51 

Earth  closet,  90 
Electric  light,  71,  78 
Emerson,  R.  W.,  79 
Environment,  5 
Evaporation  in  trap,  31,  38 
Exclusion  of  light,  70 


INDEX 


Exhalations,  gaseous,   15 

Factories,   13,  51 
Fermentation,  81 
Field,  Rogers,  28 
Fire,  12 
Fixtures,  gas,  73,  76 

plumbing,  29 
Flashing  point,   74 
Flies,  99,    100 
Floors,   1 6,  82 
Flush  tanks,  94 
Fly  screens,  85,  100 
Fomites,  96 
Food,  97,   107 
Formalin,   102 
Furnace,  60  et  seq. 
Furnishings,  79  et  seq. 

and  comfort,  79 

and  health,  79,  80 

Garbage,    100 

Gas  fixtures,  73,  76 

illuminating,  15,  71,  72,  73,  92 

mains,  leaking,  51 
Gases,  offensive,  15 
Gerhard,  W.  P.,  13 
Germ  theory  of  disease,  24,  96 
Germs,  16,  17,  97,  101 

disease,   16,  80 
Grease,  39,  89 

trap,  39 
Ground,  16,  17 
Growth,  69 

Hand  towels,  86 
Health  department,  5 

officers,  i,  6 

Healthful  living,  essentials  of,  79 
Heating,  45,  46,  57  et  seq. 

apparatus,  10,   18,  58  et  seq.    • 
Hill,  Dr.  H.  W.,  5,  103 
Horrocks,  Major,  25 
Hot-water  heating,  63,  67 
House,  2,  10,  u,  12,  13,  17,  97 

drain,  30,  36 

drainage,   canons  of,   28 

illustration  of,   34 
Householder,  rights  of,  2 
Housekeeper,   9 


Humidifying  air,  63,  67 
Humidity,  7,  44,  45,  46,  49,   101 

Illuminating  gas,    15,   71,   72,   73, 
92 

dangers  from,  73 
Impurities,  gaseous,   16 
Index  of  impurity,  43 
Infection,  97,   100 

from  sewers,  25,  26 
Infectious  disease,  97,   103,   107 

person,   104 
Insects,   97,   99 
Inspector  of  buildings,  13 
Inspectors,   trained,    13 
Irrigation,  surface  or  broad,  89 

Kerosene,  71   et  seq. 

lamp,  care  of,  77 
Kitchen,  86 

Leaks,   18 

Lehmann,  43 

Light  and  growth,  69 

and  nerves,  70 

as  disinfectant,  68,  69 

exclusion  of,   70 

hygienic  significance,  68  et  seq. 

requirement,  70 
Lighting,   68   et  seq. 

importance   of,   71 

of  country  house,   92 
Location  of  house,  13 

Malaria,  6,  47,   100 

Marshes,  6,   15,  48 

Master     Plumbers'     Association, 

25 

Mattings,  82 
Mechanical  trap,   32 
Milk,  97 

Moisture,   16,  20,  45,  46 
Mold,   14,   18 

Mosaic  code  of  sanitation,  3 
Mosquitoes,  15,  47,  48,  100 
Municipal  Art  League,  6 

Natural   illumination,   75 
Nerves,  70 
Night  air,  6 


INDEX 


Nitrates,  90 

Nitrifying  organisms,  88 

Nitrogenous  matter,  88 

Odor,  sewer,  18 
Odors,  7,  26,  47,  52 
Offensive  objects,   6 
Open  fires,  58,  60,  63,  66 
Over-crowding,  43 
Overflow  pipes,   39,  40 
Over-furnishing,   79,   80 
Over-heating,  49,  57 

Parlor,  20 

Plan,  drainage,   18 

sun,   1 8 

Peppermint  test,  35 
Perspiration,  45 
Pet  animals,  100 
Plumbing,  concealed,  28 

construction   of,   27,   28 

dangers  from,  24,  26 

defects  in,  27 

essentials  of,  29 

inspection   of,  28 

inspector,  28 

old  views  of,  24 

regulations,  26,  27 

right  use  of,  29 

safety  of,  27 

simplicity   of,   27 

supervision  of,   29 

system,    10 
Porter,   Dr.,   102 
Pot  trap,   31 
Privacy,    107 

Private  route  of  infection,  97 
Privy  vault,   99,    100 
Public  route  of  infection,  97 
Putnam,  J.  Pickering,  33 

Questions,  aim  of,  27,  28 

Radiation,  45 
Radiators,  67,  81 
Rain  water,  91 

leaders,  40 
Recreation,   107 
Refrigerator,  40,  86 


Refrigerator  waste  pipe,  40 
Residence,  choice  of,  n 
Responsibility    of    housekeepers, 

i,  6,  7 

Reventing,   32 
Rheumatism,  14 
Richardson,  Dr.  B.  W.,  i 
Risk,  12 
Rock,  87 
Room  lighting,  7 
Rugs,  82 

Sanitas  trap,  32 
Sanitation,  9,  n 

new,  5,  7 

old,  5 
Sanitary  drainage,  rules  of,  33 

law,  2 

practice,  i,  4 

reform,  3 

theory,  6 

title,   10 
Seal,  30 
Septic  tanks,  89 
Sewage,  33,  95 
Sewer  air,  7,  24,  25,  26,  96 

construction,  17 

odor,  1 8 
Simplicity  in  furnishing,  81,  82 

in  plumbing,  27 
Siphonage,  31 
Size  of  windows,  70 
Sleep,  107 

Sleeping  rooms,  dark,  70 
Smoke  nuisance,  51 
Soil,   13,  14,  18,  87,  88,  90,  92 

moisture,  16 

pipe,  29,  37 
Soiled  clothes,  84 
Standards  of  sanitation,  n 
Steam  heating,  58,  67 
Stoves,  63,  66 
S  trap,  32 

Street,  condition  of,   18 
Sulphur,   102 
Sunlight,  7,   14,   18,  69,  93,   102 

and  cleanliness,  69 

value  of,  7 
Sun  plan,  18 
Surroundings  of  house,  13 


INDEX 


Tank,  flush,  94 

pneumatic,  91 

septic,  89 

Temperature,  45,  57,   104 
Terminal  disinfection,   101 
Title,  legal,  10 

sanitary,  10 
Trap,  30 
Tuberculosis,  5 
Typhoid  fever,  16,  47,  96,  98 

Uncleanliness,   significance  of,  4 
Upholstery,  83,  84 

Vapors  from  kerosene,  74 
Ventilation,  19,  42  et  seq.,  104 

spontaneous,  7,  50,  52,  53 
Venting,  32 
Vent  pipe,  31,  39 
Vitiation  of  air,  72 
Vitality,  8,  107 


Walls,  82,  83 

Waste  pipe,  29 

Water,  16,  87,  91,  92,  94,  97,  98 

carriage  system,  29  et  seq. 

gas,  73 

ground,   16 

rain,  91 
Wells,  90 

Welsbach   burners,    72 
Wesley,  John,  3 
Wind,  direction  of,   18 
Windows,   18,  82 

size  of,  70 

Winslow,  C.-E.  A.,  25,  46 
Woodwork,  38,  82,  83 
Work,  unnecessary,   80,   81 

Yellow  fever,   100 
Zone,  breathing,  43 


RETURN  TO  the  circulation  desk  of  any 
University  of  California  Library 
or  to  the 

NORTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 
Bldg.  400,  Richmond  Field  Station 
University  of  California 
Richmond,  CA  94804-4698 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 
2-month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  calling 

(415)  642-6753 
1-year  loans  may  be  recharged  by  bringing  books 

to  NRLF 
Renewals  and  recharges  may  be  made  4  days 

prior  to  due  date 

DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 


1  5  19.9f 


SEP    31996 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


